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ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC 


ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 


FIRST  HIGH  SCHOOL  COURSE 


BY 


G.    R.    CARPENTER 

PROFESSOR  OF  RHETORIC  AND  ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 
IN  COLUMBIA   UNIVERSITY 


Web)  Horlt 
THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

LONDON:   MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Ltd. 
1901 

All  rights  reser7'ed 


Copyright,  1899, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped  August,  1899.       Reprinted  January, 
July,  1900;  March,  1901. 


lENERAL 


Ncrfajooti  i9ress 

J.  S.  Gushing  &  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith 
Norwood  Mass.  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

This  volume  is  based  on  my  Exercises  in  Rhetoric 
and  English  Composition  (high  school  course),  first 
published  in  1891,  which,  after  passing  through  six 
editions,  is  now  withdrawn  from  circulation.  In 
revising,  expanding,  and  perfecting  my  earlier  work, 
I  have  been  gratified  to  observe  how  much  progress 
has  been  made  during  this  decade  in  the  teaching 
of  rhetoric  and  English  composition  in  the  secondary 
schools.  In  1890  no  one  felt  sure  what  rhetorical 
theories  should  be  put  before  high  school  students, 
what  practice  should  be  given  them  in  composition, 
or  what  relation  the  combined  work  in  rhetoric  and 
composition  should  bear  to  the  study  of  English 
literature.  The  problem  last  mentioned  has  not  yet 
been  solved  satisfactorily.  That  we  have  come  to 
a  fairly  definite  agreement  as  to  the  other  two  prob- 
lems is  due  to  the  zeal  with  which  teachers  of  English 
are  carrying  on  their  work,  solving  their  difficulties 
by  experience,  and  to  the  animated  and  effective 
discussion,  throughout  the  country,  of  the  recom- 
mendations of  the  Committees  of  Ten  and  Fifteen 
and  the  Conference  on  Uniform  Entrance  Require- 
ments in  English. 

What  teachers  seem  to  have  agreed  on  in  regard 
to  the  teaching  of  rhetoric  and  composition  is  largely 
this :  — 

108737 


vi  Pjrface 

(i)  That  the  same  training  should  be  given  pupils 
who  go  to  college  and  pupils  who  do  not. 

(2)  That  the  formal  study  of  rhetoric  and  composi- 
tion should  be  begun  not  later  than  the  second  year 
of  the  four-year  high  school  course,  and  continued 
for  at  least  two  years. 

(3)  That  during  the  first  of  these  two  courses 
pupils  should  be  trained  in  the  choice  of  words  and 
the  structure  of  sentences  and  paragraphs ;  that  dur- 
ing the  second  course  they  should  be  briefly  trained 
in  the  main  principles  of  exposition,  narration,  de- 
scription, and  (perhaps)  argument. 

(4)  That  during  both  courses  care  should  be  taken 
that  pupils  understand  thoroughly  a  few  main  prin- 
ciples and  that  they  have  abundant  practice  in  apply- 
ing them  ;  that  stress  be  laid  on  correctness,  clearness, 
directness,  and  simplicity  of  style,  and  that  correct- 
ness be  regarded  from  a  liberal  point  of  view,  based 
on  the  actual  practice  of  educated  and  cultivated 
Americans  in  speech  and  writing. 

This  volume  attempts  to  provide  for  the  work  of 
the  first  of  these  two  courses.  The  second  volume, 
providing  for  the  second  course,  is  in  preparation. 
In  dealing  with  this  volume  I  recommend  teachers  to 
pay  especial  attention  to  the  building  of  sentences. 
It  is  as  possible  for  every  boy  to  learn  to  make  good 
sentences  as  it  is  for  every  boy  to  learn  to  swim  or 
skate  or  set  a  snare.  All  that  it  requires  is  patient 
instruction.  The  task  may  at  times  be  dreary,  but 
no  accomplishment  will  eventually  stand  the  pupi] 
in  better  stead. 

My  thanks  are  due  to  many  friends,  teachers  in 


Preface  vii 

schools  of  various  kinds,  for  suggestions  as  to  the 
form  and  content  of  this  book.  As  to  the  general 
principles  involved,  I  take  pleasure  in  acknowledging 
my  continued  indebtedness  to  the  works  of  Professor 
Barrett  Wendell  of  Harvard  University  and  Pro- 
fessor F.  N.  Scott  of  the  University  of  Michigan.  No 
inconsiderable  part  of  the  recent  progress  in  teaching 
rhetoric  and  composition  is  due  to  the  influence  of 
these  two  men.  One  brings  to  his  task  the  skill  and 
insight  of  the  man  of  letters  and  the  man  of  affairs ; 
the  other,  the  learning  and  system  of  the  student  of 
psychology  and  philology.  Together  they  have  been 
instrumental  in  bringing  about  a  revision,  in  several 
important  particulars,  of  the  body  of  conventional 
rhetorical  dogma  that  had  come  down  to  us  unchanged 
from  the  hands  of  QuintiHan  and  Campbell. 

I  shall  be  greatly  obliged  to  teachers  who  will 
have  the  kindness  to  inform  me  of  any  points  in 
which  the  volume  needs  correction,  or  who  suggest 
other  ways  in  which  it  may  be  improved. 

It  is  due  to  the  kindly  criticism  and  suggestions  of 
teachers  using  my  book  in  its  first  edition  that  I  have 
been  able,  in  this  second  edition,  to  make  substantial 
changes,  adapting  it  still  further  to  the  actual  needs 
of  practical  school  work.  The  chapter  on  the  para- 
graph has  been  rewritten  and  expanded  in  order  that 
teachers  who  prefer  to  have  the  paragraph  studied 
early  in  the  course  may  take  up  that  subject  when- 
ever they  please.  My  own  judgment  has  usually 
been  in  favor  of  deferring  the  formal  study  of  the 
paragraph  until  the  pupil  is  thoroughly  familiar  with 
sentence  structure  ;  but  the  contrary  practice  is  grow- 


viii  Preface 

iiig  in  favor,  and,  in  many  schools,  yields  excellent 
results.  It  seems  proper,  therefore,  that  a  text  book 
should  be  capable  of  use  according  to  either  method, 
at  the  option  of  the  instructor.  If  he  wishes  to  get 
his  pupils  to  writing  essays  as  soon  as  possible,  and 
especially  if  the  course  comes  later  than  the  second 
year  of  the  high  school  work,  it  is  certainly  desirable 
that  the  chapter  on  paragraphs  should  be  taken  up 
after  Chapter  VI,  or,  indeed,  after  Chapter  II.  I 
have  also,  in  Chapter  XV,  added  somewhat  to  the 
treatment  of  figures. 

G.    R.    CARPENTER. 

Columbia  University. 

New  York  City, 

August,  1900. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   I 

PAGE 

Introduction i 

CHAPTER   II 
Compositions   .        .        .        .        ^        .        .  .7 

CHAPTER  III 
English  Usage 21 

CHAPTER  IV 
Incorrect  English  " »      27 

CHAPTER  V 
The  Sentence  :  its  Grammatical  Structure     .        .      59 

CHAPTER   VI 
Punctuation 73 

CHAPTER  VII 
The  Sentence:  its  Rhetorical  Structure        o        «      90 

CHAPTER  VIII 

The    Sentence:    its    Rhetorical    Structure    (Con- 

tinned)        .         . 131 

ix 


X  Contents 

CHAPTER    IX 


PAGE 


WORD5:     V^OCABULARY 1 52 

CHAPTER   X 
Words:  too  Many;  too  Few 158 

CHAPTER   XI 
Kinds  of  Words 166 


CHAPTER   XII 
Paragraphs i^ 


CHAPTER   XIII 
The  Whole  Composition 209 

CHAPTER   XIV 
Clearness .     220 

CHAPTER  XV 
Force 229 

CHAPTER   XVI 
Elegance 238 

APPENDIX 

I.   List  of  Books  for  Home  Reading         .        .        .     242 
II.   Words  frequently  misused 244 

Index 256 


ELEMENTS    OF   RHETORIC   AND 
ENGLISH   COMPOSITION 


ELEMENTS    OF    RHETORIC    AND 
ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

CHAPTER   I 

INTRODUCTION 

1.  Definition  of  Rhetoric.  —  2.  The  Definition  Explained  : 
AN  Art  OF  Communication.  — 3.  The  Definition  Explained: 
AN  Art  of  Effective  Communication.— 4.  The  Definition 
Explained:  Rhetoric  is  an  Art.  —  5.  Rhetoric  and  English 
Composition.  —  6.  The  Two  Sides  of  our  Work.  —  7.  Thought 
THE  Basis  of  Expression.  — 8.  The  Habit  of  Good  Writing 
AND  Good  Speaking. —  Exercise  i. 

1.  Definition  of  Rhetoric.  —  Rhetoric  is  the  art  of 
effective  communication  by  means  of  language;  or, 
more  simply,  it  is  the  art  of  expressing,  by  words, 
precisely  what  we  mean. 

2.  The  Definition  Explained:  an  Art  of  Communi- 
cation. —  First,  notice  that  the  art  we  are  to  study 
involves  communication,  the  telling  of  something  to 
persons  other  than  ourselves.  Simple  as  is  this  con- 
ception of  rhetoric,  it  is  one  hard  to  keep  in  mind. 
A  speaker  or  writer  is  often  tempted  to  feel  that  his 
duty  is  done  when  his  thoughts  are  so  expressed  that 


2  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  i 

he  himself  understands  them,  forgetting  that  what  is 
of  real  importance  is  that  the  reader  or  the  hearer 
shall  understand  them. 

3.  The  Definition  Explained:  an  Art  of  Effective 
Communication.  —  Second,  notice  that  rhetoric  is  the 
art  of  effective  communication  by  language,  the  art 
of  expressing  pjrcisely  what  zve  mean.  The  art  of 
expressing  ourselves  fairly  well  we  have  all  acquired 
already.  Even  a  young  child  can  make  his  thoughts 
and  feelings  known  roughly.  What  we  are  to  study 
is  the  art  by  means  of  which  we  shall  be  helped  in 
conveying  to  the  mind  of  a  reader  or  a  hearer  as 
nearly  as  possible  our  exact  thoughts  and  feelings, 
in  order  that  he  may  understand  completely  what 
we  think  and  realize  fully  what  we  feel. 

4.  The  Definition  Explained :  Rhetoric  is  an  Art.  — 
Third,  notice  that  we  call  rhetoric  an  art,  not  a 
science.  The  meanings  of  these  two  words  often 
come  very  close  together,  but  the  main  distinction 
between  them  is  that  science  implies  knowledge 
and  art  implies  skill.  Chemistry,  for  instance,  is 
an  important  science,  the  aim  of  which  is  an  under- 
standing of  the  composition  of  material  things.  One 
may  understand  the  laws  or  principles  of  chemistry 
without  acquiring  any  skill  in  their  application.  The 
various  branches  of  engineering,  however,  as  well  as 
music,  dancing,  painting,  swimming,  and  many  simi- 
lar kinds  of  activity,  are  arts.  The  engineer,  —  to  a 
very  great  extent,  —  and  even  the  swimmer,  —  to  a 
very  small  extent,  —  must  understand  the  principles 


CHAP,  i]  Introduction  3 

on  which  their  arts  rest,  and  these  principles  may 
be  considered  as  constituting  the  science  of  engineer- 
ing and  the  science  of  swimming ;  but  the  success  of 
the  practising  engineer  and  the  practical  swimmer 
depends  upon  the  skill  with  which  they  apply  these 
principles.  Now,  rhetoric  is  essentially  an  art.  In 
order  to  write  well  we  must,  of  course,  follow  —  con- 
sciously or  unconsciously  —  certain  principles  ;  but 
the  knowledge  of  these  principles  is  not  the  main 
thing.  The  essential  part  of  rhetoric  is  that  we 
shall  act^  that  we  shall  acquire  skill  in  the  application 
of  the  principles  we  study,  in  the  practice  of  the  art 
we  are  learning.^ 

5.  Rhetoric  and  English  Composition.  —  Though 
rhetoric  is  essentially  an  art,  it  is,  to  some  extent, 
a  science.  In  general,  we  use  the  term  rhetoric 
to  include  both  the  principles  upon  which  the  art 
is  based  and  practice  in  the  art  itself.  Sometimes, 
particularly  when  speaking  of  rhetoric  and  compo- 
sition as  parts  of  an  educational  system,  we  use  the 
term  rhetoric  to  cover  the  principles  of  the  art,  and 
the  term  composition,  or  English  composition,  to 
cover  the  practical  exercises  by  which  we  acquire 
skill   in    applying   these   principles.      In   this   sense 

1  Sculpture,  music,  painting,  and  architecture  are  frequently  called 
fine  arts,  because  they  aim  not  only  to  express  thought  or  emotion,  but 
to  give  pleasure  to  the  ear  or  to  the  eye.  Rhetoric  may  be  called  a 
fine  art  in  so  far  as  beauty  is  its  object,  though  that  is  obviously  not 
always  the  case.  Rhetoric  differs  from  the  technical  or  practical  arts, 
e.g.  engineering,  in  that  it  is  an  art  of  communication.  It  differs  from 
the  fine  arts,  in  that  it  communicates  ideas  and  emotions  by  means  of 
language,  not  by  means  of  lines,  colors,  or  musical  sounds. 


4  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  i 

rhetoric  may  be  called  a  science,  and  composition 
may  be  regarded  as  an  art.  In  this  same  sense 
rhetoric  is  sometimes  called  formal  rhetoric ;  that 
is,  rhetoric  considered  as  a  set  of  scientifically 
arranged  definitions,  rules,  and  principles. 

6.  The  Two  Sides  of  our  Work.  —  There  are,  then, 
two  sides  to  our  work,  —  the  study  of  definitions, 
rules,  and  principles,  and  the  acquiring  of  skill  in 
applying  them.  Both  these  sides  are  important,  and 
neither  should  be  neglected.  The  cases  are  indeed 
rare  in  which  a  pupil  can  excel  in  composition  with- 
out a  clear  understanding  of  the  formal  side  of 
rhetoric ;  and  an  understanding  of  the  formal  side 
of  rhetoric,  however  useful  it  may  be  as  mental 
training,  is  of  little  value  when  compared  with  skill 
in  composition. 

7.  Thought  the  Basis  of  Expression.  —  The  student 
must  bear  in  mind  that  thought  is  the  real  basis 
of  expression.  He  who  continues  to  think  clearly 
and  forcibly  will,  in  most  cases,  succeed  in  acquir- 
ing the  power  of  expressing  himself  clearly  and 
forcibly.  We  should  be  wrong  were  we  to  lay  such 
stress  on  the  study  of  rhetoric  that  students  would 
believe  expression  more  important  than  thought, 
or  power  over  words  more  important  than  power 
over  ideas.  It  is  thought  that  is  the  real  basis  of 
rhetoric.  That  which  is  empty  of  thought  is  com- 
paratively worthless,  no  matter  how  beautifully  it 
is  expressed.  The  first  and  most  important  step 
towards  writing  is  thinking. 


CHAP,  i]  Introduction  5 

8.    The  Habit  of  Good  Writing  and  Good  Speaking.  — 

Few  men  in  any  generation  can  be  great  authors, 
because  few  men  have  ideas  that  interest  large  bodies 
of  people.  But  every  one  should  acquire  the  power 
of  expressing  his  thoughts  clearly  and  forcibly.  The 
acquiring  of  this  power  is  largely  a  question  of  habit, 
based  at  first  on  intelligent  direction.  It  is  the  aim 
of  this  book  to  aid  teachers  in  supplying  such  direc- 
tion to  pupils  in  the  secondary  schools.  It  must  be 
kept  in  mind,  however,  that  the  power  of  writing 
well  is  closely  akin  to  the  power  of  speaking  well. 
We  speak  more  than  we  write,  and  he  who  can  learn 
to  express  himself  well  orally  may  be  sure  that  it 
will  not  be  a  hard  task  to  acquire  a  similar  habit  in 
written  composition.  On  the  other  hand,  a  person 
who  allows  himself  to  fall  into  slovenly  and  ineffec- 
tive habits  of  speech  will  have  great  difficulty  in 
ridding  himself  of  these  habits  when  he  turns  his 
attention  to  written  composition. 

EXERCISE  I 

Write  out  answers  to  the  following  questions. 
Each  answer  should  consist  of  at  least  one  complete 
sentence. 

I.  What  is  an  art?  2.  What  is  a  science?  3.  Mention 
three  arts.  4.  Mention  three  sciences.  5.  Is  rhetoric  an 
art  or  a  science?  6.  What  is  a  fine  art?  7.  Is  rhetoric  a 
fine  art?  8.  What  seems  to  you  the  difference  between  the 
art  of  a  beautiful  poem  and  the  art  of  a  beautiful  piece  of 
mu"sic?     What  does  the  poem  include  that  the  music  does 


-a 


6  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  i 

not?  9.  Distinguish  between  rhetoric  and  composition. 
TO.  What  is  grammar?^  11.  What  seems  to  you  the 
difference  between  grammar  and  rhetoric? 

^  Grammar  deals  with  the  mutual  relations  of  words  in  a  sentence. 
If  these  relations  are  in  accordance  with  English  custom,  we  say  that 
a  sentence  is  grammatically  correct.  Rhetoric  assumes,  as  a  rule,  that 
the  sentences  with  which  it  has  to  do  are  grammatically  correct,  and 
concerns  itself  with  their  effectiveness  and  beauty,  and  with  the  accuracy 
with  which  they  express  certain  ideas.  That  is,  rhetoric  asks,  with 
regard  to  a  piece  of  writing:  do  the  words  mean  what  the  writer 
intended  them  to  mean?  are  they  so  put  together  as  to  express  in  the 
best  way  the  ideas  the  writer  had  in  mind? 


CHAP,  ii]  Compositions 


CHAPTER   II 

COMPOSITIONS 

9.  The  Importance  of  Composition  Work.  — 10.  How  to 
Choose  a  Subject.  — 11.  Subjects  from  the  Course  in  Eng- 
lish Literature.  — 12.  Subjects  from  Other  Studies.— 
13.  Subjects  from  Home  Reading  and  from  Life.  — 14.  Too 
Ambitious  Subjects.  —  Exercise  2.  —  15.  >The  Form  of  a 
Composition.  — 16.  The  Use  of  Capitals  in  Titles.  —  Exer- 
cise 3.  — 17.  The  First  Essentials  of  a  Good  Composition.— 
18.  Hints  as  to  Spelling.  —  Exercise  4.— 19.  The  Impor- 
tance of  Accuracy.  —  20.   Paragraphs. 

9.  The  Importance  of  Composition  Work.  —  It  is 
evident  from  the  preceding  chapter  how  impor- 
tant it  is  that  work  in  composition  should  accom- 
pany and  supplement  work  in  formal  rhetoric.  All 
the  author  of  this  book  can  do  is  to  put  down  in 
the  clearest  way  and  in  the  best  order  possible  the 
elementary  rules  and  principles  of  rhetoric,  and 
to  provide  good  exercises  for  the  application  of  these 
rules.  All  that  the  teacher  can  do,  in  this  part  of  his 
work,  is  to  see  that  the  pupil  masters  the  rules  and 
principles  and  applies  them  intelligently  in  the  given 
exercises.  But  the  work  of  applying  principles  goes 
further  than  this.  Each  pupil  should  write  a  short 
composition,  —  as  a  rule,  at  least  twice  a  week, — 
and  should  there  apply,  more  independently  than  in 


8  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  ii 

an  exercise,  the  whole  group  of  principles  which  he 
is  studying. 1 

10.  How  to  Choose  a  Subject.  —  In  order  that  com- 
position work  be  carried  on  successfully,  without 
unnecessary  labor  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  it  is 
indispensable  that  the  pupil  should  get  accustomed 
to  choosing  his  own  subjects  for  compositions.  Sub- 
jects may  be  chosen  from  many  sources,  as  will  be 
shown  below.  From  whatever  source  the  pupil 
chooses  a  subject,  however,  he  should  make  certain 
(i)  that  he  has  some  definite  ideas  about  the  subject, 
and  (2)  that  he  is  interested  in  the  subject.  It  is 
impossible  to  write  well  when  one  has  nothing  to  say, 
and  it  is  very  difficult  to  write  well  when  one  feels 
that  a  subject  is  stupid. 

11.  Subjects  from  the  Course  in  English  Literature.  — 
In  many  or  most  schools  the  course  in  rhetoric  is 
carried  on  at  the  same  time  with  a  course  in  the 
study  of  selected  English  classics.  Wherever  this 
is  the  case,  the  pupil  can  readily  find  excellent  sub- 
jects for  many  of  his  compositions.  If,  for  example, 
he  is  reading,  in  such  a  course,  the  vS/r  Roger  de 
Coverley  Papers,  he  can  readily  summarize  any  of 
the  papers,  sketch  any  one  of  the  characters  intro- 
duced, make  a  short  biography  of  Steele  or  Addison, 
write  a  page  on  the  political  parties  of  the  time, 
or  the  coffee-houses,  or  any  similar  subject  that  would 

1  Tlie  subject  of  composition  work  will  be  treated  at  length  by  the 
author  in  his  Elements  of  Rhetoric  and  Ettglish  Composition^  second 
high  school  course. 


CHAP,  ii]  Compositions  g 

naturally  be  suggested  by  the  class  work  or  by  his 
own  thought. 

12.  Subjects  from  Other  Studies.  — With  a  Httle  prac- 
tice, the  student  will  find  it  no  less  easy  to  get  good 
subjects  from  the  other  topics  included  in  his  work. 
Nothing  could  be  more  sensible  to  write,  and  few 
things  more  interesting  to  read,  than  a  pupil's  com- 
position based  on  one  of  the  battles  so  well  described 
in  Caesar's  Gallic  War,  or  on  an  incident  in  American, 
English,  or  Roman  history,  or  on  an  experiment  or 
process  or  principle. in  natural  science.  Wherever  in 
his  school  work  the  pupil  feels  that  he  has  got  hold 
of  a  definite  idea,  and  one  that  interests  him,  he  can 
be  pretty  certain  that  he  has  also  got  hold  of  a  good 
subject  for  a  composition. 

13.  Subjects  from  Home  Reading  and  from  Life. — 
Many  schools  supplement  their  courses  in  English 
literature  by  prescribing  a  certain  amount  of  home 
reading  in  the  English  classics.^  Here  again  the 
student  has  a  wide  range  of  subjects  for  composition, 
particularly  as  here,  when  reading  more  at  leisure 
and  for  his  own  pleasure,  he  will  feel  more  at  liberty 
to  write  about  his  own  impressions,  his  likes  and 
dislikes,  —  the  character  in  a  novel  which  he  admires 
most  or  hates  worst,  the  scenes  that  are  most  interest- 
ing, the  side  of  the  book  that  is  most  stupid.  Equally 
rich  in  the  material  it  affords  for  subjects  is  the  field 
of  the  pupil's  natural  reading,  —  apart  from  what  is 
prescribed    by   the    school    authorities,  —  the   news- 

1  A  typical  list  is  given  in  the  Appendix,  I. 


lO  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  ii 

papers,  the  magazines,  the  books  of  travel,  or  adven- 
ture, or  science,  to  which  he  turns  of  his  own 
accord.  Equally  rich,  too,  is  the  whole  field  of  the 
student's  actual  life.  Nothing  can  be  more  interest- 
ing to  read  or  more  pleasant  to  write  about  than 
experiences  in  shooting  or  fishing,  sports,  journeys, 
or  even  the  more  prosaic  sides  of  life,  —  the  houses 
in  which  we  live,  the  sights  and  sounds  with  which 
we  are  familiar,  the  little  things  we  do. 

14.  Too  Ambitious  Subjects.  —  It  is  well,  however, 
during  the  first  year  of  high  school  work  in  rheto- 
ric, to  place  two  limits  upon  work  in  composition.  It 
is  best  (i)  that  a  pupil  should  write  only  short  essays, 
rarely  exceeding  two  pages,  and  (2)  that  he  should 
not  often  undertake  fictitious  narratives.  An  abun- 
dance of  practice  in  short  compositions  on  definite 
subjects  yields  at  first  better  results  than  long,  vague, 
and  rambling  attempts  at  original  stories.  There 
will  be  ample  opportunity  later  on^  for  longer  and 
more  original  work,  and  the  ambitious  student  will 
profit  by  restraining  his  zeal  until  he  has  thoroughly 
mastered  the  elementary  principles  of  the  art. 

Note.  —  Students  should  be  encouraged  to  keep  lists 
of  good  subjects. 

EXERCISE   2 

I.  Draw  up  a  list  of  five  composition  subjects  from  each 
of  your  school  courses,  except  mathematics.  2.  Draw  up 
a  similar  list  from  each  of  the  following  fields  :  — {a)  your 
home  reading,  (J?)  a  recent  magazine,  {c)  a  recent  news- 

1  See  the  second  course,  which  supplements  the  present  volume. 


CHAP,  ii]  Compositions  il 

paper,  (^)  your  last  vacation,  (^)  your  last  holiday.  3.  Draw 
up  a  similar  list  of  interesting  subjects  for  descriptive  com- 
positions from  the  town  in  which  you  live. 

15.  The  Form  of  a  Composition.  —  In  preparing  com- 
positions, the  student  should  observe  the  following 
rules,  unless  otherwise  directed  by  his  instructor :  — 

(i)  Use  paper  about  eight  by  ten  inches  in  size. 

(2)  Use  black  ink  and  write  legibly. 

(3)  Write  only  on  one  side  of  the  paper. 

(4)  On  the  left-hand  side  of  each  page  leave  a 
margin  of  at  least  one  inch. 

(5)  Number  each  page  of  your  composition,  if 
there  be  more  than  one,  in  the  upper  right-hand 
corner  and  put  the  pages  together  in  the  order  in 
which  they  are  to  be  read. 

(6)  Fold  the  paper  once  lengthwise.  Write  at  the 
top  of  the  outside  page  your  name,  the  section  or 
course  in  which  you  belong,  and  the  date  on  which 
the  composition  is  due,  thus  :  — 

J.  Q.  Anderson, 

Section  4, 
October  6,  1898. 

For  the  sake  of  uniformity  and  for  the  convenience 
of  the  instructor,  this  information  should  be  written 
on  the  side  of  the  folded  theme  that  corresponds  to 
the  side  of  a  book  cover  on  which  the  title  is  some- 
times printed.  That  is,  the  crease  of  the  paper  should 
be  on  the  left  side.  Nothing  except  this  information 
should  be  written  on  the  outside  of  the  theme. 


12  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  ii 

(7)  At  the  top  of  the  first  page,  and  in  the  middle, 
should  be  written  the  title.  Each  noun,  adjective, 
and  other  important  word  in  the  title  should  begin 
with  a  capital  letter.  Between  the  title  and  the 
beginning  of  the  composition  there  should  be  a 
blank  space,  equal  to  at  least  the  space  between 
two  of  the  lines  usually  ruled  on  such  paper. 

(8)  Each  line  of  the  composition,  except  the  first 
line  of  a  paragraph,  should  begin  at  the  margin 
mentioned  in  (4).  The  first  line  of  each  paragraph 
should  begin  about  an  inch  further  to  the  right.  By 
this  means  we  "indent"  a  paragraph. 

16.  The  Use  of  Capitals  in  Titles.  —  It  is  customary 
to  begin  with  a  capital  letter  the  first  word  of  a  title 
and  every  noun  and  adjective  in  the  title,  but  not 
other  words ;  e.g.  The  iHistorical  Development  of 
Modern  Eitrope.  Is  not  the  Mortality  from  Surgical 
Disease  Larger  than  is  Necessary  f  The  Glacial  or 
Post-glacial  Divej'sion  of  the  Bronx  River  from  its 
Old  Channel.  When  a  verb  or  an  adverb  is  a  promi- 
nent or  important  word  in  the  title,  it  may  also  be 
begun  with  a  capital ;  e.g.  Teaching  Requires  Knowl- 
edge and  Skill.  How  to  Teach  Snccessfnlly.  Re- 
cently the  practice  of  using  no  capitals  in  titles, 
except  for  the  first  word  and  for  proper  nouns  and 
adjectives,  has  been  adopted  in  many  library  cata- 
logues and  in  some  periodicals,^  but  it  is  not,  as  a 
rule,  to  be  recommended  in  composition  writing. 

1  For  example,  the  Educational  Review. 


CHAP,  ii]  Compositions  13 

EXERCISE  3 

I.  Write  a  title  in  the  proper  place,  on  a  sheet  of 
paper  of  the  proper  size.  Write  two  or  three  words 
at  the  beginning  of  each  line  on  the  page,  in  such  a 
way  as  to  indicate  the  proper  margin  and  the  proper 
indentation  of  paragraphs.  Fold  the  composition 
properly  and  indorse  it  according  to  the  directions 
given  in  §  1 5  (6). 

II.  Write,  with  the  proper  capitalization,  the  fol- 
lowing titles :  — 

I.  The  celebrated  jumping  frog.  2.  Innocents  abroad. 
3.  Sketches,  new  and  old.  4.  Punch,  brothers,  punch,  and 
other  sketches.  5.  A  Connecticut  Yankee  in  King  Arthur's 
court.  6.  The  spy  :  a  tale  of  the  neutral  ground.  7.  Does 
prohibition  prohibit?  8.  Shall  we  annex  the  Philippines? 
9.  Poems  written  and  published  during  the  American  Revo- 
lutionary War,  and  now  republished  from  the  original  manu- 
scripts :  interspersed  with  translations  from  the  ancients, 
and  other  pieces  not  heretofore  in  print.  10.  How  to 
punctuate  correctly.  11.  The  bibelot:  a  reprint  of  poetry 
and  prose  for  book-lovers.  12.  The  child  in  the  house. 
13.  Where  the  battle  was  fought.  14.  Shakespeare :  a 
critical  study  of  his  mind  and  art.  15.  The  lost  leader. 
16.  Under  the  red  robe.  17.  Essays  in  little.  18.  Plain 
tales  from  the  hills.  19.  Memories  and  portraits.  20.  The 
boy's  king  Arthur.  21.  The  days  of  auld  lang  syne. 
22.  Under  the  greenwood  tree.  23.  The  parting  of  the 
ways  in  the  foreign  policy  of  the  United  States.  24.  The 
bow  of  orange  ribbon.  25.  Ballads  and  barrack-room 
ballads.  .26.  The  dangers  of  imperialism.  27.  A  history 
of  modern  times.  28.  The  day's  work.  29.  The  seven 
lamps    of    architecture.        30.    Eighteenth-century    essays. 


14  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  ii 

31.  Goethe's  correspondence  with  a  child.  32.  What 
Katy  did  at  school.  t^Z-  Around  the  world  in  eighty 
days.  34.  A  little  book  of  western  verse.  35.  Tales  of 
mean  streets.  2i^.  How  to  judge  of  a  picture.  37.  Pride 
and  prejudice.  38.  A  Uterary  curiosity  from  Charles  Lamb's 
library.  39.  Are  the  Germans  still  a  nation  of  thinkers? 
40.  The  future  relations  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States.  41.  San  Francisco's  struggle  for  good  government. 
42.  Working  under  water :  the  story  of  an  amateur  pearl- 
fisher.  43.  Life  in  Manila :  a  trooper's  diary.  44.  The 
Pacific  ocean  and  our  future  there.  45.  Mosses  from  an 
old  manse.  46.  Gray  days  and  gold.  47.  A  tale  of  two 
cities.  48.  The  dramatic  works  of  William  Shakespeare 
from  the  text  of  the  corrected  copies  of  Steevens  and 
Malone,  with  a  life  of  the  poet.  49.  Appreciations,  with 
an  essay  on  style.     50.  Much  ado  about  nothing. 

17.  The  First  Essentials  of  a  Good  Composition.  — 
Clear  handwriting  and  correct  spelling  are  the  first 
essentials  of  a  good  composition.  The  pupil  who 
writes  a  distinct,  legible  hand  and  spells  correctly 
may  indeed  make  serious  rTietorical  blunders  and 
express  his  ideas  in  a  confused  way ;  but  he  has  at 
least  made  sure  of  two  important  and  gentlemanly- 
habits.  The  pupil  who  writes  a  sprawling,  indistinct 
hand  and  spells  badly  may  indeed  be  a  genius ;  but 
he  has  acquired  two  ungentlemanly  and  wholly  use- 
less habits,  —  habits  born,  in  all  but  very  rare  cases, 
of  indolence ;  habits  which  will  do  much  to  perplex 
his  fellow-mortals  and  make  him  a  laughing-stock 
among  them.  A  little  common  sense  will  do  much 
to  change  bad   handwriting    and   bad    spelling    into 


CHAP,  ii]  Compositions  15 

good.  Bad  writing  may  be  due  to  unavoidable 
physical  causes,  —  tremor  or  stiffness  of  the  muscles, 
for  instance;  but  it  is  more  likely  to  be  due  to  a  bad 
position,  to  inattention,  or  to  the  use  of  the  sort  of 
pen,  paper,  or  ink  that  goes  least  well  with  the 
writer's  physical  peculiarities.^  Bad  spelling  is  due 
(i),  in  rare  cases,  to  defective  eyesight;  or  (2),  more 
commonly,  to  a  deficiency  in  the  writer's  power  of 
visualizing,  that  is,  his  power  of  reproducing  the 
form  of  a  word  before  his  mind  as  if  by  actual  sight ; 
or  (3)  to  a  habit  of  slovenly  pronunciation.  Those 
whose  eyes  are  good  and  who  are  good  visualizers 
commonly  spell  well.  Those  whose  eyes  are  defec- 
tive should  wear  glasses ;  those  who  are  poor  visual- 
izers,—as  are  many  of  us,  including  the  present 
writer,  —  or  who  pronounce  carelessly,  should  en- 
deavor to  make  up  for  the  defects  or  peculiarities 
of  nature  by  sheer  force  of  attention,  will,  reason, 
and  habit.2 

18.  Hints  as  to  Spelling.  —  A  few  hints  may  help 
those  who  have  much  difficulty  in  learning  to  spell 
correctly :  — 

(i)  Always  look  through  your  composition  before 

1  The  new  system  of  backhanded  writing  is  considerably  more  legi- 
ble than  the  slanting  hand. 

2  The  student's  attention  should  be  called  to  the  efforts  that 
are  being  made  by  individuals  and  by  learned  societies  to  make 
English  spelling  more  uniform  and  rational.  See  the  articles  of 
B.  E.  Smith  in  Forum^  vol.  22,  p.  367;  and  of  Professor  Lounsbury 
in  Scribner^s,  vol.  1 8,  pp.  729,  864;  and  also  Professor  Brander 
Matthews's  essay  on  American  spelling  in  his  Americanisms  and 
Briticisms. 


1 6  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  ii 

you  hand  it  in,  in  order  to  correct  any  blunders  you 
may  have  made.  If  possible,  do  this  some  hours,  at 
least,  after  the  writing  of  the  composition.  After  such 
an  interval  you  are  more  likely  to  notice  your  mistakes. 

(2)  Have  at  your  desk  a  good  abridged  dictionary, 
and  use  it. 

(3)  If  possible,  keep  a  Hst  of  the  words  you  mis- 
spelL  and  practise  yourself  on  them.^ 

(4)  If  you  have  difficulty  in  remembering  what 
words  are  spelled  with  ei  and  what  with  ie,  you 
may  be  helped  by  the  convenient  ''rule  of  thumb" 
that,  when  the  two  letters  are  pronounced  as  ee,  i  or  e 
comes  first  according  as  the  preceding  consonant  is 
nearer  i  or  e  in  alphabetical  succession.  Thus,  yield, 
siege y  chief ,  piece,  believe ;  but  perceive,  receive,  con- 
ceive, ceilifig.  Exceptions  ^xq  field,  financier,  leisure, 
seize,  neither,  weird. 

(5)  If  you  have  studied  Latin,  and  have  difficulty 
in  remembering  whether  words  are  spelled  with  ant 
or  ent,  able  or  ible,  notice  that,  when  such  words  are 
derived  from  the  Latin,  the  EngHsh  spelling  usually 
follows  the  vowel  of  the  Latin  conjugation ;  e.g, 
adjutant,    mendicant ;    agent,    delinquetit,    dependent, 

1  In  some  high  schools  and  academies  the  excellent  plan  is  followed 
of  giving  the  whole  school  each  day  a  five-minute  written  exercise  in 
spelling  from  dictation.  The  words  are  taken  from  a  spelling-book 
or  from  any  ordinary  prose  work,  but  lists  of  words  actually  misspelled 
in  various  written  exercises  may  often  be  used  to  great  advantage.  If 
possible,  the  exercises  should  be  written  on  narrow  slips  of  paper  with 
numbered  lines.  Ten  words  at  least  can  be  dictated  and  written,  and 
the  papers  collected,  in  five  minutes.  The  labor  of  reading  the  exer- 
cises is  not  great,  unless  there  are  several  hundred  pupils. 


CHAP.  II ]  Compositions  ly 

convenient;  impeccable y  mtitablcy  tractable;  fallible^ 
invincible. 

(6)  Notice  that  "  verbs  of  one  syllable,  ending  with 
a  single  consonant,  preceded  by  a  single  vowel  (as 
plan),  and  verbs  of  two  or  more  syllables,  ending  in 
the  same  manner,  and  having  the  accent  on  the  last 
syllable  (as  regret),  double  the  final  consonant  of  the 
verb  on  assuming  an  additional  syllable ;  as  plan, 
planned ;  regret,  regretted ;  but  if  a  diphthong  pre- 
cedes the  last  consonant  (as  in  join),  or  the  accent  is 
not  on  the  last  syllable  (as  in  suffer),  the  consonant 
is  not  doubled ;  as  join,  joined ;  suffer,  suffered!'  ^ 
Verbs  ending  in  /  are  usually  spelled  with  //  when 
an  additional  syllable  is  assumed ;  e.g.  traveller  (but 
paralleled).  Many,  however,  follow  Webster  in  writ- 
ing traveler,  etc. 

EXERCISE  4 

I.  Describe,  in  a  composition  of  at  least  five  sentences, 
your  own  handwriting,  indicating  its  good  and  bad  points. 

2.  Discuss  in  the  class  room,  under  the  direction  of  the 
teacher,  the  handwritings  of  several  members  of  the  class, 
indicating  the  good  and  bad  points  of  each  hand  and  sug- 
gesting ways  in  which  it  might  be  changed  and  improved. 

3.  In  a  composition  of  not  less  than  five  sentences,  answer 
the  following  questions  :  do  you  spell  chiefly  by  ear,  by 
eye  {i.e.  by  the  visual  image  of  the  word  as  it  seems  to 
stand  out  before  you  in  your  memory),  or  by  sheer  force  of 
memory,  i.e.  by  remembering  the  exact  order  in  which  the 
letters  follow  each  other?  4.  Either  at  home,  or  in  the  class 
room,  —  at  the  convenience  of  the  teacher,  —  write  the  fol- 

^  Worcester's  Dictionaiy  of  the  English  Language,  "  Rules  of 
Orthography." 


1 8  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  ii 

lowing  words  from  dictation  in  groups  of  ten,  fifteen,  or 
twenty,  taking  only  one  group  a  day.  The  words  include 
many  of  those  which  young  students  are  likely  to  use  and 
likely  to  misspell. 

Abbreviate,  abhorrence,  accede,  accessible,  accommodate, 
accumulate,  acknowledgment,  acquaintance,  adjutant,  admis- 
sible, advantageous,  aggravate,  agreeable,  all  right,  athletics. 

Annually,  anxiety,  apparatus,  assassin,  ascertain,  auxiliary, 
banana,  battalion,  beginning,  benefited,  boisterous,  bouquet, 
bulletin,  business,  casualty. 

Changeable,  Christian,  circuit,  civility,  cleanliness,  colonel, 
column,  commemorate,  committee,  commodity,  comparative, 
complement,  compliment,  correlative,  corroborate. 

Counselor,  council,  consul,  crystallize,  curiosity,  deference, 
definite,  dependence,  descendant,  develop,  development, 
describe,  description,  despair,  disappear. 

Disappoint,  dissatisfy,  divisible,  eligible,  embarrass,  espe- 
cially, etc.,  exaggerate,  exceedingly,  excellence,  exhibit, 
extraordinary,  fallible,  familiar,  fascinate. 

Feign,  fidgety,  financier,  flannel,  forbade,  forcible,  foreigner, 
forfeit,  forty,  fulfil,  generally,  government,  grandeur,  guardian, 
harass. 

Hemorrhage,  holiday,  hugely,  humorous,  hygiene,  hypoc- 
risy, icicle,  illegible,  imagine,  immediately,  incessant,  incon- 
ceivable, incorrigible,  incredible,  indictment. 

Inflammation,  ingenious,  instalment,  intercede,  interroga- 
tion, irascible,  irrelevant,  its,  judgment,  laboratory,  languor, 
led,  lien,  lieutenant,  likelihood. 

Liquefy,  liquidate,  lose,  loose,  lullaby,  maintenance,  mar- 
riageable, marvellous,  medicine,  memorize,  mercantile,  mile- 
age, milliner,  mimic,  mimicking. 

Miniature,  miscellaneous,  mischievous,  missile,  monarchy, 
moreover,  necessary,  neuralgia,  ninetieth,  noticeable,  obei- 
sance, obliging,  occasionally,  occurrence,  one's. 


CHAP,  ii]  Compositions  19 

Opposite,  origin,  original,  parallel,  participle,  peaceable, 
perseverance,  perform,  pervade,  physician,  possessive,  posi- 
tively, precede,  preeminent,  preferable. 

Prejudice,  principal,  principle,  privilege,  precede,  pro- 
fessor, pursue,  recollect,  recommend,  reservoir,  rhythm, 
sacrilege,  salable,  seize,  separate. 

Several,  siege,  sieve,  similar,  stationary,  stationery,  sover- 
eign, specialty,  stratagem,  strategy,  succeed,  symmetry, 
tangible,  thorough,  temperament. 

Till,  together,  tranquilize,  truly,  tyranny,  until,  vacillate, 
village,  villain,  volume. 

19.  The  Importance  of  Accuracy.  —  It  is  worth  the 
student's  v^hile,  for  two  reasons,  to  make  it  his  ambi- 
tion to  be  accurate  in  spelHng  and  in  similar  matters. 
First,  accuracy  in  such  small  points  will  help  him 
greatly  in  all  his  written  work.  Spelling  belongs  to 
the  rudiments  of  education,  and  it  is  hard  to  teach 
higher  things  to  a  pupil  not  thoroughly  grounded  in 
the  rudiments.  Second,  accuracy  in  details  is  a  part 
of  character.  We  feel  that  we  can  depend  upon  the 
man  whose  knowledge  is  accurate,  and  we  are  apt  to 
suspect  that  the  man  who  is  slipshod  in  details  is 
intellectually  weak.  Youth  is  the  time  to  build  up 
habits  of  patience,  perseverance,  and  accuracy,  and 
the  study  of  English  composition  is  one  of  the  best 
means  to  that  end.  Third,  the  pupil  who  has  to 
make  a  conscious  effort  to  spell  correctly  must  neces- 
sarily be  obliged  to  withdraw  a  considerable  part  of 
his  attention  from  more  important  matters. 

20.  Paragraphs.  —  One  further  matter  pertaining 
to  the  general  subject  of  compositions  must  be  con- 


20  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  ii 

sidered.  The  idea  that  printed  matter  is  divided  into 
paragraphs  is  familiar  to  all,  but  the  young  writer  is 
often  at  a  loss  to  know  at  what  points  he  should 
break  up  his  composition  into  paragraphs.  For  the 
present,  it  will  be  sufficient  for  him  to  notice  that  in 
the  ordinary  printed  essay  the  paragraphs  average  at 
least  one  hundred  and  fifty  words  each.  Thisjneans^ 
that  it  is  usually  not  worth  while  to  subdivide  an  idea 
that  can  be  stated  as  a  whole  in  one  hundred  or  one 
hundred  and  fifty  words. 


CHAP.  Ill]  English  Usage  21 


CHAPTER   III 

ENGLISH  USAGE 

21.  The  Importance  of  Usage  in  Language.  —  22.  Literary 
Usage,  Colloquial  Usage,  and  Vulgar  Usage.  — 23.  Correct 
English.  —  24.  Local  Usage.  —  25.  Authority  as  to  Usage. 
—  26.  Dictionaries.  —  Exercise  5. 

21.   The  Importance  of  Usage   in  Language.  —  The 

expression  of  thought  by  language  involves  a  certain 
relation  between  two  persons  or  sets  of  persons,  a 
speaker  or  writer  on  the  one  hand,  and  a  listener  or 
reader  on  the  other.  It  is  by  words  that  thought 
is  conveyed  from  one  person  to  another.  It  is  plain, 
then,  that  whether  the  exact  thought  of  one  person 
reaches  the  eye  or  ear  .of  another  person,  depends 
upon  an  agreement  between  them  as  to  the  mean- 
ing of  the  words  used.  Now,  words  have  the  mean- 
ing that  usage  gives  them.  They  change  from 
century  to  century  in  force  and  value.  It  is  clear, 
therefore,  that  it  is  of  the  first  importance  in  the 
study  of  rhetoric  that  we  realize  what  meanings,  in 
our  time,  are  given  to  words  by  people  with  whom 
we  communicate.  It  is  equally  clear  that  among  the 
millions  of  English-speaking  people  scattered  over 
the  face  of  the  globe  we  must  expect  to  find  at  least 


22  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  hi 

slight  differences  of  opinion  as  to  the  meaning  or 
force  of  certain  English  words. 

22.  Literary  Usage,  Colloquial  Usage,  and  Vulgar 
Usage.  —  Questions  of  usage  are  sometimes  hard  to 
settle,  for  the  reason  that  usage  varies  slightly  with 
different  localities.  The  EngUsh  spoken  in  AustraHa 
or  India,  the  English  spoken  in  the  United  States,  and 
the  English  spoken  in  England,  Scotland,  or  Ireland, 
are  not  precisely  the  same.  Usage  varies  to  some 
extent  also  even  in  the  same  locality.  In  the  first 
place,  written  English  differs  in  some  slight  particu- 
lars from  spoken  English.  In  conversation,  for 
example,  we  habitually  use  such  contractions  as 
doiit,  shan't,  and  wont,  and  many  familiar  words 
and  expressions  which  are  rarely  found  in  more  dig- 
nified discourse,  or  in  print.  In  the  second  place, 
there  are  many  English  words  and  expressions,  such 
as  hain't,  worser,  which  are  not  employed,  even  in 
conversation,  by  educated  speakers.  We  have,  then, 
in  any  given  English-speaking  district  or  country 
three  kinds  of  English,  each  differing  to  a  cer- 
tain degree  from  the  others:  (i)  literary  English, 
or  the  words  and  constructions  used  in  reputable 
literature  ;  (2)  colloquial  English,  or  the  forms  which 
educated  people  use  in  conversation ;  and  (3)  what 
we  may  call  common  or  vulgar^  English,  i.e,  Eng- 
lish used,  whether  in  speech  or  in  writing,  by  the 
great  mass  of  the  uneducated,  on  whom  the  words 
and  constructions  used  in  literature  have  no  great 

1  From  the  Latin  vulgusy  "  crowd." 


CHAP,  hi]  English  Usage  23 

influence.^  Of  these  three  kinds  of  English,  the 
first  varies  least,  in  different  districts  or  countries, 
and  the  third  most. 

23.  Correct  English.  —  We  call  words  or  expressions 
"correct"  when  they  are  widely  used  in  literature 
and  conversation  by  people  of  intelligence  and  edu- 
cation. We  call  words  or  expressions  "incorrect" 
when  they  are  not  used  by  such  people,  and  are 
associated  in  our  minds  with  ignorance  or  bad 
manners.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that  opinions  may 
frequently  differ  as  to  what  is  correct  or  incorrect. 
The  distinction  is  in  many  cases  a  question  of  taste, 
and  some  people  of  good  judgment  call  incorrect 
what  others  of  equally  good  judgment  call  correct. 
There  is  a  school  of  rhetoricians  and  grammarians, 
for  example,  sometimes  called  "purists,"  who  take  in 
such  matters  the  extreme  position  that  certain  words 
can  be  considered  incorrect,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  they  are  widely  used  by  people  of  intelligence 
and  education.  That  is,  they  hold  that  words  are  not 
necessarily  correct  when  used  in  the  meanings  given 
them  in  reputable  current  literature  and  conversation, 

^  Vulgar  English  also  includes  dialect.  A  dialect,  such  as  Scotch, 
is  a  local  form  of  a  language,  greatly  at  variance  with  ordinary  usage 
and  spoken  throughout  a  district.  There  are  a  number  of  dialects  in 
Great  Britain,  and  there  are  several  forms  of  local  speech  in  America,  — 
that  of  the  Southern  negroes,  for  example,  vi'hich  differs  in  many  particu- 
lars from  ordinary  usage.  Dialectic  expressions  are  often  very  beauti- 
ful and  interesting,  especially  when  they  are  dear  to  us  by  association, 
or  have  been  consecrated,  as  it  were,  by  centuries  of  local  usage. 
Vulgar  English  is  sometimes,  too,  a  survival  of  what  was  in  its  day 
good  literary  and  colloquial  English. 


24  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  hi 

but  only  in  the  meanings  given  them  by  the  most 
fastidious  writers  of  the  period.  In  this  book,  the 
tests  of  correctness  will  be  construed  somewhat  more 
liberally. 

24.  Local  Usage.  —  Oftentimes  words  or  expres- 
sions perfectly  familiar  in  one  locality,  and  currently 
used  there  by  intelligent  and  educated  people,  are  not 
used  throughout  the  country,  or  by  other  bodies  of 
English-speaking  people.  In  the  United  States,  for 
example,  we  say  elevator,  baggage,  editorial,  whereas 
in  Great  Britain  the  same  ideas  are  expressed  by  the 
words  lift,  higgage,  leader.  The  first  set  of  words 
we  may  call  Americanisms ;  the  second,  Briticisms. 
Similarly,  an  Englishman  may  say  "  I  fancy  "  in  the 
sense  of  ** think,"  where  a  Yankee  might  say  "I 
guess,''  and  a  Southerner,  "  I  reckon^  It  would  be 
straining  a  point  to  call  such  local  expressions  incor- 
rect. Slight  differences  of  this  sort  often  add  a 
pleasing  individuality  to  local  speech.  In  writing  to 
the  public  at  large,  however,  one  should  obviously  be 
careful  not  to  allow  such  peculiarities  to  becom.e  so 
prominent  as  to  render  him  laughable  or  unintel- 
ligible. 

25.  Authority  as  to  Usage.  —  The  student  will  nat- 
urally ask  how  he  can  discover  whether  any  par- 
ticular word  is  correctly  or  incorrectly  used  in  any 
particular  sense.  It  may  be  replied  that  he  must 
depend  upon  observation,  inquiry,  and  his  own  good 
sense.  Obviously,  his  first  source  of  information  and 
authority  will  be  the  body  of  intelligent  and  educated 


CHAP,  hi]  English   Usage  2$ 

people  with  whom  he  comes  in  contact.  If  he  fol- 
lows their  usage  in  matters  of  language,  he  cannot 
go  far  astray.  A  surer  test  is  that  of  usage  in  litera- 
ture. Words  or  expressions  which  a  number  of  repu- 
table writers  deliberately  use  can  surely  not  be  called 
wrong.  Dictionaries  are  also  useful,  for  they  are  the 
great  storehouses  of  English  usage.  Finally,  when- 
ever usage  seems  to  differ,  one's  own  taste  and  sense 
must  be  called  into  play.  The  present  writer  pleads 
for  a  considerable  degree  of  tolerance  in  such  mat- 
ters. If  we  know  what  a  man  means,  and  if  his 
usage  is  in  accordance  with  that  of  a  large  number  of 
intelligent  and  educated  people,  it  cannot  justly  be 
called  incorrect.  For  language  rests,  at  bottom,  on 
conyejition  or.,_agreement,  and  what  a  large  body  of 
reputable  people  recognize  as  a  proper  word  or  a 
proper  meaning  of  a  word  cannot  be  denied  its  right 
to  a  place  in  the  English  vocabulary.  Particularly 
in  questions  of  pronunciation,  where  our  language 
frequently  recognizes  two  usages,  we  should  be  care- 
ful not  to  assume  that  the  usage  which  custom  or 
taste  has  made  natural  to  us  has  any  authority  beyond 
that  of  local  or  individual  preference. 

26.  Dictionaries.  —  The  best  English  dictionaries 
for  school  use  are  Webster's,  Worcester's,  the  Cen- 
tury, and  the  Standard.  Each  has  peculiarities  that 
render  it  particularly  valuable ;  each  is  a  thoroughly 
reputable  authority.^  Whatever  any  of  them  says 
as  to  the  pronunciation,  meaning,  or  use  of  a  word 
is  sure  to  be  the  usage  sanctioned  by  a  large  body 


26  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  hi 

of  intelligent  and  educated  people.  Wherever  they 
differ,  all  are  likely  to  be  right ;  that  is  to  say,  wher- 
ever usage  differs,  these  dictionaries  may  differ. 
Abridged  editions  of  Webster's,  Worcester's,  and  the 
Standard,  especially  adapted  for  the  use  of  pupils, 
are  also  issued.  If  possible,  one  dictionary  should, 
as  a  matter  of  convenience,  be  chosen  as  a  standard 
in  each  school. 

EXERCISE  5 

Write  out  answers  to  the  following  questions. 
Each  answer  should  consist  of  at  least  two  com- 
plete sentences. 

I.  How  do  words  get  their  meanings?  2.  Do  all  Eng- 
lish-speaking people  use  the  same  words  in  the  same  senses? 
3.  What  is  the  difference  between  literary  English  and  col- 
loquial English  ?  4.  Between  colloquial  English  and  vulgar 
English?  5.  Is  it  is  hern  vulgar  or  colloquial?  6.  Is  thafs 
a  cinch  vulgar,  colloquial,  or  literary?    7.  What  is  a  dialect? 

8.  Is  the  language  employed  in  Burns's  To  a  Mouse,  the 
first  stanza  of  which  is  given  below,  vulgar,  colloquial,  or 
literary  ? 

"  Wee,  sleekit,  cowrin,  tim'rous  beastie, 
O,  what  a  panic's  in  thy  breastie  ! 
Thou  need  na  start  awa  sae  hasty, 

Wi'  bickerin  ^  brattle  ^ ! 
I  wad  be  laith  to  rin  an'  chase  thee, 

Wi'  murd'ring  battle  ^ ! 

9.  Give  two  instances  of  disputed  usage.  10.  How  are  we 
to  know  when  our  expressions  are  correct  ?  11.  How  are 
we  to  decide  in  disputed  cases? 

^  Rapid.         '^  Hurry.         ^  Stick  for  cleaning  the  plough. 


CHAP,  iv]  Incorrect  English  27 


CHAPTER    IV 

INCORRECT  ENGLISH 

27.  New  Words.  —  Exercise  6.-28.  Misused  Words. —  Exer- 
cise 7.— 29.  Disputed  Words.  —  Exercise  8.  —  30.  Incorrect 
Grammar, —  31.  Articles.  —  32.  Nouns:  Formation  of  the 
Plural.— 33.  Nouns  :  Formation  and  Uses  of  the  Possessive.— 
34.  Pronouns  :  Nominative  and  Objective  Cases.  —  Exercise  9. 

—  35.  Pronouns:  the  Possessive  Case.  —  36.  Relative  Pronouns. 

—  37.  PRONOUNS:  Number.  —  Exercise  10. —  38.  Verbs:  Num- 
ber. —  Exercise    ii.  —  39.    Verbs  :    Sequence    of    Tenses.  — 

40.  Verbs  :  may,  can  ;  lie,  lay  ;  sit,  set ;  rise,  raise.  —  EXERCISE  12.  — 

41.  Other  Common  Errors.  — Exercise  13.  — 42.  Shall  A^i^D  will. 

—  43.  Shall  AND  will  IN  Future  Tenses.  —Exercise  14.  — 44.  Shall 
and  will  IN  Verb-phrases.  — Exercise  15.  — 45.  Shall  and  will 
IN  Questions.  —  Exercise  16.  —46.  Shall  and  will  in  Dependent 
Clauses.  —  Exercise  17.  —  47.  Mistakes  in  the  Use  of  shall  and 
m;///.  —  Exercise  18. 

27.  New  Words.  —  As  language  exists  for  the 
purpose  of  communication,  it  is  plain  that  a  new 
word  runs  a  great  risk  of  not  being  understood  by 
the  general  public.  Like  novel  or  striking  things 
in  dress  or  custom,  it  runs  also  the  risk  of  seeming 
indecorous  or  vulgar.  Almost  every  family  has  in 
its  private  vocabulary  certain  words  of  domestic 
manufacture  which  are  understood  perfectly  by  the 
members  of  the  family,  but  which  would  be  puzzling 
to  other  people.  In  the  same  way  new  words  appear 
from  time  to  time  among  larger  groups  of  men,  and 
attain  a  wider  currency.     Sometimes  such  words  are 


28  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  iv 

caught  up  by  the  general  pubHc,  and  made  a  part  of 
our  ordinary  language ;  sometimes  they  continue  for 
a  time  to  exist  in  vulgar  or  colloquial  Enghsh,  but  die 
out  before  gaining  even  a  foothold  in  literary  Enghsh. 

These  new  words  (technically  called  barbarisms,  i,e, 
foreign  or  barbarian  words)  are  of  three  kinds  :  — 

(i)  Words  arising  as  jocose  expressions,  just  as 
nicknames  do ;  e.g.  dude,  swipe  (college  slang), 
bulldoze,  boycott}  Of  these  examples,  dude,  which 
appeared  about  fifteen  years  ago,  and  swipe  retain 
their  place  in  vulgar  and  local  English ;  bulldoze 
has  become  established  in  colloquial  English,  and 
boycott  has  even  reached  literary  usage.  Under  this 
heading  may  also  be  classed  many  of  those  violently 
figurative  slang  expressions  which  lend  so  much  color 
to  colloquial  and  vulgar  English  at  the  present  time, 
particularly  in  America ;  e.g.  cinch,  grind.  Most  of 
these  slang  expressions,  to  be  sure,  are  not  based 
on  words  that  are  absolutely  new  to  the  language, 
but  they  give  to  old  words  such  totally  new  meanings 
as  to  render  them  practically  new. 

(2)  Words  made  necessary  by  new  inventions  or 
circumstances  ;  e.g.  cablegram,  typewi  iter,  electrocute. 
It  should  be  noticed  that  it  is  acceptance  by  the 
public  that  make  such  words  valid.  Much  objection 
was  made  by  scholars,  for  instance,  to  telegram, 
which  does  not  mean,  according  to  the  Greek  words 
from  which  it  is  derived,  precisely  what  we  wish  it  to 

1  From  Captain  Boycott,  the  first  prominent  victim  of  the  system. 
The  first  three  examples  are  of  unknown  or  uncertain  origin. 


CHAP,  iv]  Incorrect  English  29 

mean.  Telegram  has,  however,  been  received  into 
literary  English  merely  because  it  was  the  name 
which  the  people  adopted.  Cablegram  has  also 
been  objected  to  by  purists,  and  has  not  yet  gained 
the  widest  currency  in  literary  English.  Electrocute, 
a  word  of  very  recent  origin,  has  not  come  into 
very  general  favor,  partly  on  account  of  its  false 
derivation  ;  ^  but  if  the  method  of  capital  punishment 
thus  described  comes  to  be  regularly  used,  it  is 
obvious  that  some  word  must  be  adopted  to  desig- 
nate it;  and  electrocute,  in  spite  of  its  absurdity,  has 
as  yet  no  strong  rival. 

(3)  Words  employed,  as  a  sort  of  abbreviation,  for 
longer  and  more  roundabout  English  expressions ; 
eg.  enthuse,  for  **grow  enthusiastic  over";  burglar- 
ize, used  of  the  entering  of  a  house  by  burglars ; 
banjoist,  for  **  player  on  the  banjo."  Such  words 
are  born  of  good  intentions.  They  cannot,  however, 
be  regarded  as  belonging  to  colloquial  or  literary 
English,  any  more  than  could  the  obviously  im- 
possible words  spas,  for  ^'go  into  spasms";  police- 
manize,  for  ''  guard  by  a  policeman " ;  chairist,  for 
**  chair-maker." 

EXERCISE  6 

I.  The  following  words  are  all  of  comparatively 
recent  origin.  Do  they  belong  to  literary,  colloquial, 
or  vulgar  usage ;  that  is,  do  you,  on  the  whole,  asso- 

^  Electrocute  is  formed  on  the  basis  of  execute,  as  if  cute  meant  "  to 
kill."  But  cute  is  merely  a  fragment  of  the  Latin  secutus  (compare 
persecute),  which  means  "follow." 


30  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  iv 

ciate  them  with  intelligent  and  educated  people,  or 
with  unintelligent  and  uneducated  people  ?  Answer 
by  writing  the  number  of  each  word  and  after  it  the 
word  "literary,"  "colloquial,"  or  "vulgar." 

I.  Typewriter.  2.  A  combine.  3.  Wheatena.  4.  A 
perQiit.  5.  A  walkist.  6.  To  wholesale.  7.  An  exhibit. 
8.  A  faddist.  9.  An  invite.  10.  X-rays.  11.  Auto-truck. 
12.  To  paper-knife  a  book.  13.  Artistry.  14.  Tony.  15.  To 
dynamite.  16.  To  incept.  17.  To  scrap  a  car  {i.e.  to 
send  it  to  the  scrap-heap).      18.  A  gent.      19.  To  enthuse. 

II.  The  italicized  words  in  the  following  sentences 
do  not  belong  to  literary  English.  Are  they  in  good 
colloquial  use  .'*  Answer  Yes  or  No.  If  you  are  in 
doubt,  see  if  you  can  find  the  word  in  a  dictionary. 

I.  When  it  came  to  business  he  was  a  hustler,  2.  Al- 
though his  house  had  been  burglarized,  he  still  enthused  over 
his  prospects.  3.  I  insist  that  electrocution  is  as  good  an 
English  word  as  "  telegram."  4.  I  should  like  a  photo  of 
thsit  gent.  5.  The  Glee  Cludders  weiQ  late.  6.  The  biggest 
steal  ever  heard  of  was  that  at  the  May  town  bank.  7.  Wage- 
earner  H.  M.  Mack  is  at  the  front.  8.  He  is  a  famous  dase- 
ballist.  9.  The  money  deques  ted  to  Harvard  from  the 
Smith  estate  must  be  over  fifty  thousand  dollars.  10.  The 
motorneer  can  stop  an  electric  within  two  rods. 

28.  Misused  Words.  —  To  use  English  words  with 
meanings  which  wide  usage  has  not  given  them  is 
also  a  marked  disadvantage  in  communication.  Such 
misuses  of  words  (technically  called  improprieties)  are 
of  three  sorts  :  —  . 

(i)  Mere  blunders  of   ignorance    or   carelessness, 


CHAP,  iv]  Incorrect  English  31 

which  consist  in  confusing  words  somewhat  similar 
in  form  or  sound;  e.g.  accept  and  except,  affect  and 
effect, 

(2)  Mistakes  in  English  idiom.  According  to  Eng- 
lish usage  certain  words  can  be  used  together,  and 
certain  words  cannot.  We  say,  for  instance,  "the 
effect  of  a  law,"  not  ''the  effect  by  a  law";  ''char- 
acterized by^'  not  "characterized  withT  "Idiom" 
strictly  means  a  usage  peculiar  to  a  single  language, 
but  it  is  generally  used  to  signify  the  law  of  lan- 
guage* whereby  certain  words  are  regularly  used 
with  each  other,  in  order  to  convey  a  particular 
meaning. 

(3)  Uses  of  words  with  meanings  which  are  famil- 
iar in  vulgar  English,  but  which  have  not  been 
recognized  in  colloquial  or  literary  English ;  e.g,  party 
for  "person,"  as  in  ''\ki^ party  with  the  tall  hat." 

EXERCISE  7 

The  italicized  words  are  used  incorrectly ;  the  words 
in  parenthesis  are  used  correctly.     Construct  other 
y^entences   illustrating  the  correct  use  of   the  words 
^;r    that  are  incorrectly  used. 

Sy 

f^ / I  I-  He  was  doomed  to  expatiate  (expiate)  his  crimes  on 
the  gallows.  2.  How  will  the  new  regulations  effect  (afifept) 
your  school?  3.  He  depreciated  (deprecated)  the  attempt 
made  by  the  last  speaker  to  excite  a  prejudice  against  the 
company.  4.  The  observation  (observance)  of  these  simple 
rules  would  have  prevented  all  difficulty.  5.  I  am  not  liable 
(likely)  to  have  any  such  good  luck.     6.  I  had  an  elegant 


32  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  iv 

(good)  time.  7.  We  must  eliminate  (make  out)  the  truth 
from  these  scattered  details.  8.  Is  the  party  (person) 
that  wants  a  carriage,  downstairs  or  in  his  room?  9.  Not 
having  a  pencil,  he  merely  gave  the  boy  a  verbal  (oral)* 
message.  10.  He  fails  most  (almost)  every  time.  11.  After 
the  drill  had  transpired  (ended)  there  was  a  dance  in  the 
hall.     12.  It  rained  real  (very)  hard. 

29.  Disputed  Words.  —  It  is  often  a  very  delicate 
matter  of  taste  to  decide  whether  certain  words  or 
uses  of  words  have  been  recognized  in  colloquial 
and  literary  English.  Donate,  for  example,  has  been 
long  regarded  as  a  barbarism,  but  it  is  a  perfectly 
intelligible  word,  and  is  not  uncommon  in  colloquial, 
and  even  in  literary  English.  Aggravate  we  are  per- 
fectly familiar  with  in  the  sense  of  "  tease  "  ;  but, 
though  it  has  long  been  in  good  local  use,  it  can 
scarcely  be  said  to  have  been  admitted  into  literary 
English.  It  is  plain  that  many  such  cases  as  these 
we  are  now  discussing  must  be  accepted  or  rejected 
on  grounds  of  personal  preference.  Whenever  the 
accepted  meanings  of  words  are  in  dispute,  the  stu- 
dent is  advised  to  observe  the  usage  of  reputable 
people  in  conversation  and  in  composition,  and  to 
be  guided  by  their  practice  as  well  as  by  his  own 
taste.  It  is  especially  important  that  he  should  not 
accuse  others  of  using  incorrect  English  when  they 
are  merely  following  another  form  of  usage,  which 
has  been  recognized  by  large  numbers  of  reputable 
people.  A  list  of  words  frequently  misused  is  given 
in  Appendix  II  for  purposes  of  reference. 


CHAP.  IV ]  Incorrect  English  33 

EXERCISE  8 

By  reference  to  Appendix  II,  ascertain  the  various 
uses  of  the  following  words,  and  construct  a  sentence 
to  illustrate  an  authorized  use  of  each  word  :  — 

I.  Aggravate.  2.  Balance.  3.  Calculate.  4.  Claim. 
5.  Definite.  6.  Demean.  7.  Depot.  8.  Don't.  9.  En- 
dorse. 10.  Firstly.  11.  Got.  12.  Guess.  13.  Liable. 
14.  Mutual.  15.  Nice.  16.  Party.  17.  Plenty.  18.  Posted. 
19.   Propose.        20.    Quite.        21.   Stop.       22.   Transpire.! 

30.  Incorrect  Grammar.  —  Grammar,  as  well  as 
rhetoric,  depends  upon  usage,  although  almost  all 
points  of  inflection  and  syntax  are  now  so  thoroughly 
settled  as  not  to  be  in  doubt.  Common  faults  in 
grammar  are  of  two  sorts  :  — 

(i)  Faults  in  the  form  of  words,  i.e.  in  inflection; 
e.g.  hisn  for  his,  aint  for  isn't,  chimb  for  climbed. 

(2)  Faults  in  relations  between  words,  i.e.  in  syn- 
tax ;  e.g.  "  you  was  "  for  ^'  you  zvere.'' 

The  following  sections  will  be  found  to  include  all 
or  nearly  all  common  errors  in  grammar.  They  are 
placed  here  because  it  is  important  that  the  pupil 
should,  at  the  outset,  rid  himself  of  the  habit  of  using 
bad  grammar.  Errors  in  the  use  of  single  words  can 
be  dealt  with  at  any  time,  but  errors  in  grammar  dis- 
turb the  relations  between  words  or  groups  of  words, 
and  are  hence  of  more  importance.  The  student 
should  be  carefully  tested  on  each  of  the  following 
sections.  If  any  errors  of  the  kinds  there  indicated 
are    still   found    in    his    speech    or   writing,    means 


34  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  iv 

should  be  employed  to  convince  him  that  they  are 
errors,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  rid  him  of  the 
habit  of  employing  them. 

31.  Articles.  —  The  article  should  not  be  omitted 
when  the  sense  requires  its  use;  e.g.  we  should  say 
"  the  secretary  and  the  treasurer,"  not  '*  the  secretary 
and  treasurer,"  unless  both  offices  are  supposed  to  be 
held  by  the  same  person. 

32.  Nouns  :  Formation  of  the  Plural.  —  Care  should 
be  taken  to  form  properly  the  plural  of  compound 
words,  foreign  nouns,  and  other  words  which  present 
slight  difficulties. 

(i)  It  is  natural  that  foreign  words  much  used  in 
English  should  make  their  plurals  as  English  words 
do,  and  this  tendency  toward  uniformity  should  be 
encouraged  as  much  as  possible.  From  this  point 
of  view,  we  should  say  bandits,  formulas^  memoi'an" 
duins,  rather  than  banditti,  formnlcB,  memora7tda, 
though  the  latter  forms  are  all  allowable.  A  few 
foreign  nouns,  however,  still  retain  their  foreign 
plurals ;  e,g.  phenomenon,  phenomena.  These  the  stu- 
dent must  eventually  learn  by  heart,  if  he  does  not 
know  the  languages  to  which  the  foreign  words 
belong. 

(2)  Words  in  which  a  noun  is  compounded  with 
an  adverb  or  a  prepositional  phrase,  add  the  plural 
sign  to  the  original  noun ;  e.g.  lookers-on,  men-of-war, 
sons-in-laiv.  In  the  rare  compound  nouns  (all  mili- 
tary or  judicial  titles  of  French  origin)  in  which  a 
noun  is  followed  by  an  adjective,   as  knight-errant, 


CHAP,  iv]  Incorrect  English  35 

major-general,  it  was  formerly  the  custom  to  add  the 
plural  sign  to  the  noun;  as  knights-errant,  majors- 
general,  courts-martial.  It  is  now  more  usual,  how- 
ever, to  treat  these  nouns  without  regard  to  the 
relative  value  of  their  component  parts,  and  to  add 
the  plural  sign  at  the  end;  as  knight-errants,  major- 
generals,  court-martials.  In  several  compounds  in 
which  the  component  parts  are  both  nouns  and  not 
easily  merged  together,  such  as  knight-templar,  man- 
servant, woman-servant,  the  plural  sign  is  added  to 
each  word  ;  as  knights-templars ,  men-servants,  women- 
servants.  It  should  be  added  that,  though  journey- 
man and  similar  nouns  have  the  plurals  journeymen 
and  the  like,  such  nouns  as  German,  Norman,  Mus- 
sulman, Ottoman,  talisman,  are  not  nouns  compounded 
with  the  English  word  man,  and  so  form  the  plurals 
Germans,  Normans,  talismans,  etc. 

33.  Nouns  :  Formation  and  Uses  of  the  Possessive.  — 
The  possessive  singular  is  formed  by  adding  s,  pre- 
ceded by  an  apostrophe,  to  the  nominative  singular; 
thus,  boy,  hoys.  The  apostrophe  denotes  that  a 
letter  is  here  omitted  in  spelling,  for  the  Old  Eng- 
lish possessive  added  es  to  the  nominative  singular. 
Sometimes,  when  the  singular  ends  in  a  hissing 
sound,  we  omit  the  s,  especially  if  the  next  word  also 
begins  with  a  hissing  sound,  adding  as  the  sign  of 
the  possessive  only  the  apostrophe,  as  in  "  for  Jesus' 
sake,"  "for  conscience'  sake,"  "for  old  acquaintance 
sake."  It  would  be  rare  to  find  in  the  three  phrases 
just  mentioned  any  other  form  of  the  possessive  than 


36  Ele^nents  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  iv 

that  given,  but  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  '*  Dickens' 
novels,"  ''Keats'  poems,"  ''Socrates'  life,"  as  well  as 
"Dickens's  novels,"  " Keats' s  poems,"  etc. 

A  compound  noun  forms  the  possessive  singular 
by  adding  's  at  the  end,  as  man-of-war  s.  Names  of 
firms  and  similar  phrases  follow  the  same  principle; 
e.g.  "Park  and  Tilford's  coffee,"  **the  governor  of 
Kentucky's  policy." 

The  possessive  plural  is  formed  by  adding  's  to 
the  regular  plural  form,  if  that  does  not  end  in  s ;  e.g. 
men,  men's.  If  the  plural  ends  in  s,  the  possessive 
adds  only  the  apostrophe ;   e.g.  dogs,  dogs'. 

In  prose  the  possessive  is  regularly  used  only 
with  nouns  denoting  persons;  e.g.  "the  mans  head," 
but  "  the  top  of  the  house."  But  we  often  use  the 
possessives  of  neuter  nouns  when  the  objects  they 
represent  may  easily  be  regarded  as  persons ;  e.g. 
"the  ship's  decks."  Of  recent  years,  particularly  in 
America,  there  has  been  a  growing  tendency  to 
employ  the  possessive  with  names  of  cities,  coun- 
tries, colleges,  etc. ;  e.g.  "  Columbia's  crew  "  for  "  the 
Colicmbia  crew."  ^  But  this  usage  has  not  yet  been 
accepted  in  the  best  literary  prose.  Whether  it  be 
accepted  or  not,  however,  there  is  no  defence  for 
the  vulgar  use  of  the  possessive  where  there  can 
be  no  idea  of  possession;  e.g.  "Boston's  great  fire" 
for  "the  great  fire  in  Boston." 

Such  constructions  as  "  I  see  no  use  in  John  doing 
it"    for    "I    see    no    use    in   JoJin's    doing    it"    are 

1  See  P^-inciples  of  English  Grammar.,  §  155. 


CHAP,  iv]  Incorrect  English  37 

incorrect.  Here  the  noun  or  pronoun  representing  the 
actor  must  be  in  the  possessive,  not  the  objective  case.^ 

34.  Pronouns :  Nominative  and  Objective  Cases.  — 
The  most  common   errors  under   this  head    are :  — 

(i)  The  use  of  the  objective  for  the  nominative 
after   is,  was,  etc. ;    e.g.    "  I  thought  it  was  her.'' 

(2)  The  use  of  the  nominative  for  the  objective 
after  a  preposition  or  the  predicate  objective;  e.g. 
"between  you  and  /";  "I  supposed  it  to   be  she.'' 

(3)  The  use  of  who  for  whom  or  whom  for  who ; 
e.g.  ""  I  gave  it  to  the  man  who  I  chose." 

(4)  The  use  of  the  wrong  case  after  than ;  e.g.  "  he 
is  older  than  me"  for  "he  is  older  than  /  \am\" 

It  should  be  observed  that  in  such  constructions 
as  "  I  gave  it  to  the  man  who  they  say  is  the  right 
one,"  they  say  is  parenthetical  and  has  no  influence 
on  the  construction  ;  who  is  the  subject  of  is. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  is  considerable 
authority  for  the  colloquial  (not  the  literary^  use  of 
who  as  an  interrogative  pronoun  in  the  objective 
case,  in  such  expressions  as  "  who  did  you  see } " 
and  of  me  in  "it  is  me."'^ 

EXERCISE  9 

I.    Form  the  plurals  of  the  following  nouns  :  — 
Dwarf,   wharf,    handkerchief,    thief,    half,    beef,    money, 
valley,  soliloquy,  yesterday,  folly,  genus,  stratum,  phenome- 
non, hanger-on,  break-down,  forget-me-not,  chief-of-police. 

^  Principles  of  English  Grammar^  §  125,  note  I. 

2  See  Principles  of  English  Grammar ^  §§  70  and  154.  Whom  is 
also  sanctioned  by  usage  in  such  expressions  as  "  Shakspere,  than 
who?n  no  poet  is  greater." 


3^  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  iv 

II.  Form  the  possessive  singular  and  the  posses- 
sive plural  of  — 

Child,  dog,  lady,  man-servant,  man-of-war,  prince,  princess. 

III.  Turn  into  possessives  the  nouns  used  with  of 
in  the  following  phrases  :  — 

A  journey  of  an  hour  and  three-quarters,  the  salary  of 
the  President  of  the  United  States,  a  portrait  of  Mr.  Howells. 

IV.  Which  pronoun  should  be  used  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences  1 

\.  I  had  rather  it  were  Qie^him)  than  {I^me).  2.  I  was 
surprised  to  find  it  was  {she,  her).  3.  You  must  under- 
stand that  this  is  between  you  and  (/,  Trie).  4.  I  found 
nobody  there  except  {he,  hint).  5.  I  found  nobody  there 
but  {he,  hJT^i)}  6.  I  saw  no  one  but  {he,  him).  7.  He 
said  he  would  never  have  believed  it  of  {we,  us)  boys. 
8.  It  was  a  present  to  {we,  us)  girls.  9.  They  say  it  was  > 
{we,  us).  10.  He  was  taller  than  {I,  me)}  11.  You  had 
rather  believe  him  than  (/,  me).  12.  He  supposed  it  to 
be  {she,  her)-  13.  No  one  beheved  it  to  be  (/,  me), 
14.  No  one  thought  of  its  being  {she,  her).  15.  It  was 
clearly  {she,  her)  that  started  it.  16.  I  feel  that  I  am  as 
good  a  man  as  {he,  him) . 

V.  Supply  who,  whom,  or  which  in  the  following 
sentences :  — 

I.  He  was  a  quiet  boy,  -—  I  believe  was  never  in  mischief. 
2.    She  was  vexed  at  the  presence  of  Tom,'"— Tier  brother 

^  But  in  this  construction  can  be  treated  as  a  preposition,  i.e.  "  but 
him^''  or  as  a  conjunction,  i.e.  "but  he  [was  there]."  The  former 
is  preferable.     See  Priticiples  of  English  Grammar,  §  149. 

2  Some  defend  the  use  of  than,  in  such  constructions,  as  a  preposi- 
tion, but  the  weight  of  authority  favors  treating  it  as  a  conjunction. 


CHAP,  iv]  Incorrect  English  39 

had  asked  to  dinner.  3.  I  was  delighted  to  find  my  old 
dog,  —  r  had  supposed  to  be  dead.  4.  I  was  delighted  to 
find  my  old  dog,^—T 'supposed  was  dead.  5.  The  woman 
—  I  expected  to  take  the  place  of  a  trained  nurse  was  more  1^ 
of  a  hindrance  than  a  help.  6.  There  stood  Francis,  —  "^^'W^ 
they  both  hate,  and^^  I  thought  was  not  coming.  7.  Even 
Harry,  *^'  ine  told  me  she  had  left  at  hpme,  appeared 
shortly  after.  8.  I  am  anxious  to  know  —  you  refy  to. 
9.  "^-^  ^as  it  written  by?  10.  I  insist  upon  knowing  —  you 
mean.  11.  I  will  give  it  to  —ever  comes  first.^  12.  I  will 
give  it  to  —ever  I  choose. 

VI.  Are  the  italicized  forms  correct.? 

I.  I  ?>2i\Y  John  driving.  2.  I  object  io  John's  driving. 
3.  I  see  no  sense  in  >^/;^*^ming.  4.  I  saw  him  looking 
out  of  the  window.  5.  What  is  the  use  of  me  spending 
my  time  here? 

VII.  Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sen- 
tences :  — 

I .  A  Yale  and  Harvard  man  show  the  effects  of  different 
training.  2.  It  is  rare  to  hear  of  an  Atlantic  steamer's  loss. 
3.  Brooklyn's  latest  murder  is  the  talk  of  the  town.  4.  I 
had  not  heard  of  Smith's  robbery.  5.  This  is  something 
for  you  and  I  to  decide.  6.  It  makes  w^  poor  people 
rejoice. 

35.   Pronouns :   the   Possessive   Case.  —  Care  should 
be  taken  not  to  insert  the  apostrophe  in  the  pos-       x^ 
sessivecase  of  pronouns;  e.g.  it's,  her's. 

It  should  be  noticed  that  whose  is  generally  used 
as  the  possessive  of  who,  not  of  which.     That  is,  we 

1  Notice'  that  the  antecedent  is  omitted :  "  I  will  give  it  to  [him] 
whoever  comes  first." 


40  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  iv 

say,  "the  man  whose  son  I  know,"  but  **this  plan, 
the  results  of  zvhich  are  still  uncertain."  Whose 
is,  however,  sometimes  used  as  the  possessive  of 
which  when  of  which  would  be  awkward,  or  when 
the  object  referred  to  is  easily  personified;  e.g.  "the 
mountain  zvhose  white  peak  still  gleamed  in  the 
distance." 

36.  Relative  Pronouns.  —  Two  errors  are  frequently 
committed  in  the  use  of  relative  pronouns  :  — 

(i)  It  is  better  not  to  use  constructions  such  as  the 
following :  "  subjects  difficult  to  comprehend,  and 
which  I  scarcely  venture  to  treat"  ;  "men  ragged  in 
appearance,  but  who  were  noble  in  bearing."  Here 
and  which  -AXi^  but  who  imply  a  preceding  which  and 
zvho.  The  constructions  should  be  :  "  subjects  zvhich 
are  difficult  to  comprehend,  and  which  I  scarcely 
venture  to  treat  "  ;  "  men  who  were  ragged  in  appear- 
ance, but  zvJio  were  noble  in  bearing."  Though  the 
usage  objected  to  is  accepted  in  other  modern  lan- 
guages, and  has  long  had  a  certain  authority  even 
in  English,  it  is  wise,  on  the  whole,  to  avoid  it. 

(2)  Which  should  not  be  used  for  a  fact  (or  any 
similar  v(^ord)  which  ;  e.g.  "  he  bowed  to  her  in  a  very 
distant  manner,  which  showed  his  bad  breeding,"  for 
"an  act  which  showed  his  bad  breeding,"  or  "thereby 
showing  his  ill-breeding."  It  would  not  be  hard  to 
find  some  authority  for  the  usage  here  objected  to, 
but  it  is  better  that  the  young  writer  should  avoid 
using  which  unless  it  has  a  definite  noun  or  pronoun 
as  its  antecedent. 


CHAP,  iv]  "    Incorrect  English  41 

37.  Pronouns :  Number.  —  Avoid  errors  in  agree- 
ment as  to  number  between  noun  and  pronoun ;  e.g, 
"if  the  public  submits  to  such  an  imposition,  they 
will  regret  it."  Here  public,  as  the  subject  of  a 
verb  in  the  singular,  must  be  taken  as  a  singular 
noun,  and  cannot  be  referred  to  by  a  plural  pronoun. 

Notice,  also,  that  in  referring  to  every  one,  every- 
body, any  one,  etc.;  the  pronoun  he  or  she  is  employed, 
according  to  the  context;  e.g,  "  I  shall  be  glad,  gentle- 
men, to  help  every  one  of  you  in  whatever  project  he 
undertakes,"  or  "  I  shall  be  glad,  ladies,  to  help  every 
one  of  you  in  whatever  project  she  undertakes."  If  the 
sex  is  not  determined,  we  may  use  (d)  the  masculine 
singular  pronoun  as  covering  both  genders,  or  {b)  both 
the  masculine  and  the  feminine  singular  pronouns ; 
e.g.  (a)  **  every  one  here  may  ask  me  any  questions  he 
chooses,"  (^)  '^  he  or  she  chooses."  {a)  is  the  form 
preferred  in  literary  English,  unless  it  is  necessary  to 
throw  emphasis  on  the  fact  that  the  statement  applies 
equally  well  to  both  sexes  {b).  The  plural  pronoun 
referring  to  every  one,  etc.,  is  condemned  by  rhetori- 
cians, and  is  to  be  avoided;  but  it  is  common  in  vulgar 
and  colloquial  speech,  and  is  not  infrequent  in  literary 
English. 

EXERCISE   10 

I.  In  the  following  sentences  is  whose  or  of  which 
correct  1 

I.  It  was  a  man  whose  name  I  could  not  remember. 
2.  It  was  a  town  whose  name  I  could  not  remember.  3.  It 
was  a  project  whose  results  could  easily  be  imagined. 


42  Elements  of  RJietoric  [chap,  iv 

II.  In  the  following  sentences  is  which  or  and 
which  correct  ? 

I.  Such  are  a  few  of  the  paradoxes  one  could  cite  from 
his  writings  and  which  are  now  before  me.  2.  When  I  saw 
her  again,  she  was  laid  up  with  a  fever  she  had  caught  at 
the  camp,  a7id  which  proved  fatal.  3.  It  is  a  subject 
not  often  talked  about  and  which  I  propose  now  to  dis- 
cuss with  you.  4.  This  is  the  best  part  of  the  story,  which 
is  full  of  interest  and  which  the  reader  will  not  willingly 
lay  down. 

III.  Is  which  used  correctly  in  the  following  sen- 
tences } 

I.  He  struck  him  heavily  on  the  head,  which  caused  him 
to  fall  at  once.  2.  He  cried  when  the  soot  got  into  his 
eyes,  which  it  did  every  day  in  the  week. 

IV.  In  the  following  sentences  make  sure  that 
the  italicized  pronouns  and  verbs  are  in  the  proper 
number :  — 

I.  The  committee  reports  that  it  had  no  difficulty  in 
ascertaining  the  facts,  but  that  they  were  at  a  loss  to  know 
how  to  deal  with  the  facts.  2.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
extraordinary  sights  that  has^  ever  been  seen.  3.  The  plan 
is  one  of  the  boldest  that  has  ever  been  brought  forward. 
4.  He  is  one  of  those  good-natured  people  who  let  others 
alone  and  have  no  thought  of  interfering  with  any  one  else, 
as  long  as  no  one  else  interferes  with  hijn.  5.  That  night 
every  one  of  the  crew,  except  him,  we7'e  down  with  the 
fever.  6.  He  took  it  for.  granted  that  everybody  near  him 
were  his  friends.  7.  One  fine  afternoon  everybody  was  on 
deck  amusing  themselves  as  best   they  could.      8.    Nearly 

1  That  is  the  subject  of  has.     The  antecedent  of  that  is  sights. 


CHAP,  iv]  Incorrect  English  43 

every  one  of  the  compositions  had  mistakes  in  them,  9.  The 
firm  has  set  a  good  example  by  dealing  fairly  with  every  one 
in  their  employ.  10.  The  assembly  expresses  its  sense  of 
the  loss  they  have  sustained,  / 

38.  Verbs :  Number.  —  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to 
decide  whether  a  verb  should  be  in  the  singular  or 
the  plural  number. 

A  singular  verb  is  used  when  the  subject  is  singu- 
lar, or  may  be  appropriately  regarded  as  singular ; 
a  plural  verb  when  the  subject  is  plural,  or  may 
appropriately  be  regarded  as  plural. 

A  subject  may  be  regarded  as  singular :  — 

(i)  When  it  is  a  collective  noun;  e.g.  "the  com- 
mittee  makes  its  report." 

(2)  When  it  is  the  title  of  a  book;  e.g.  "his  Lives 
of  Celebrated  Criminals  is  sold  for  four  shillings." 

(3)  When  it  is  composed  of  two  or  more  nouns, 
connected  by  and  or  unconnected,  and  of  such  a 
sort  as  to  be  considered  as  a  single  idea ;  e.g.  "  his 
giant  strength  and  lion  bravery  was  long  celebrated 
throughout  the  nation,"  "his  strength,  his  bravery, 
his  fortitude,  was  praised  alike  by  the  nobles  and 
commons." 

(4)  When  it  is  composed  of  two  singular  nouns 
connected  by  or  or  7ior ;  e.g.  ^^  he  or  his  brother  is 
coming." 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  also  perfectly  consistent 
with  good  usage  :  — 

(i)  To  regard  a  collective  noun  as  plural  when  it 
is  desired  to  emphasize  the  individuals  that  compose 


44  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  iv 

the   group;    e.g.    *'the   co7nniittee    differ  as  to  what 
report  they  shall  make." 

(2)  To  regard  as  plural  such  a  book  title  as  Lives 
when  the  singular  would  be  awkward  or  harsh  in 
sound ;  e.g.  "Johnson's  Lives  have  long  been  famous." 

(3)  To  regard  all  groups  of  nouns  as  plural  when 
they  are  not  obviously  singular  in  intent;  e.g.  ''his 
great  strength  and  lion  bravery  were,"  etc.,  "  his 
streitgth,  his  bravery,  his  fortitude  were,"  etc. 

Many  doubtful  cases  occur,  and  great  latitude  of 
choice  is  allowed.  The  only  safe  guide  is  that  of 
singular  or  plural  meaning. 

Of  the  errors  illustrated  in  the  following  exercise, 
two  deserve  special  mention  :  — 

(i)  The  use  of  the  plural  after  singular  nouns 
connected  by  or  or  nor ;  e.g.  "neither  his  father  nor 
his  mother  are  alive." 

(2)  The  use  of  the  plural  after  a  singular  noun 
followed  by  as  well  as,  together  ivith,  or  similar 
phrases;  e.g.  "John,  as  well  as  his  sister,  are  com- 
ing"; "John,  together  with  his  sister,  are  coming." 
Notice  \k\2Xjohn  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  in  both  the 
examples  given. 

EXERCISE    II 

Make  sure  that  the  italicized  verbs  are  in  the 
proper  number. 

T.  Their  special  resort,  I  hear,  are  the  small  lakes  to  the 
north.  ^.  To  Washington  and  his  devoted  generals  are 
due  the  honor  of  having  made  it  possible.  /  3.  In  these  few 
sentences  are  to  be  found    the  root  of  the  whole  matter. 


CHAP,  iv]  Incorrect  English  45 

4.  The  poetical  associations  with  which  the  coming  of 
spring    are    associated   were    not,    in    this    case,    present. 

5.  Rattlesnakes  start  from  the  cavities  of  the  rocks,  and 
the  scream  of  eagles,  soaring  among  the  whirlwinds  of 
eddying  vapors,  announce  that  the  waters  have  hurled  some 
bewildered  animal  over  the  precipice.  -6.  I  learned  from 
him  that  not  a  line  of  the  lectures  were  written,  y.  I  thus 
obtained  a  reputation  for  powers  of  mind  and  body  which  I 
could  not  disprove,  and  yet  which  I  felt  zvere  undeserved. 

8.  A  life  of  many  years  among  the  rocks  and  caverns 
of    the    mountains   have    made    him    silent   and    reserved. 

9.  Increase  of  ease  and  fame  have  strengthened  his  in- 
cHnation  to  accept  things  as  they  are.  10.  Since  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  the  moral  and  physical  condition  of 
the  soldiers  have  occupied  public  attention.  11.  Both  his 
and  their  safety  were  at  that  time  endangered.  \t.  Behind 
the  house  stands  a  well-stocked  barn  and  several  sheds. 
13.  His  conduct  in  the  whole  matter,  together  with  the 
letters  I  have  received,  prejudice  me  in  his  favor.  14.  My 
son  as  well  as  my  sister  were  on  the  boat.  15.  Neither 
my  friend  nor  his  sister  were  in  the  least  afraid. 

39.  Verbs  :  Sequence  of  Tenses.  —  The  student  must 
be  on  his  guard  against  inconsistencies  in  tenses. 
Thus,  he  must  be  careful  to  say,  "  I  shall  be  obliged 
if  you  will  do  it,"  or  ''I  should  be  obliged  if  you 
zvould  do  it "  ;  but  not,  "  I  shall  be  obliged  if  you 
would  do  it."  Again,  he  should  say,  *'  I  expected  to 
do  it,"  and  not  "  I  expected  to  have  done  it,"  because 
what  he  expected  was  '*to  do  it,"  and  not  "to  have 
done  it." 

40.  Verbs:  may 9  can;  lie,  lay;  sit,  set;  rise, 
raise.  — Maj/,  not  can,  is  used  to  ask  permission;  e.g. 


46  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  iv 

*'  may  I  go  ? "  Can  implies  ability ;  e.g.  "  can  I  be  of 
any  service  to  you?"  ''can  you  get  there  in  time?" 
This  distinction,  however,  is  not  often  observed  in 
negative  statements ;  e.g.  we  may  answer  the  question 
''may  I  go?"  either  by  "no,  you  may  not,"  or  '  no, 
you  can  not."     The  latter  is  the  more  usual. 

Lie  is  intransitive.  Its  principal  parts  are  lie^  lay, 
lain.  Lay  is  transitive.  Its  principal  parts  are  lay, 
laid,  laid.  The  statement  that  lie  is  used  of  persons 
and  lay  of  things  is  misleading. 

Sit  is  intransitive.  Its  principal  parts  are  sit,  sat, 
sat.  Set  is  transitive,  and  does  not  change  its  form 
in  the  past  tense  or  the  past  participle. 

Rise  is  intransitive ;  raise  is  transitive ;  e.g.  "  he 
rises  at  seven  "  ;  "he  raises  corn." 

EXERCISE   12 

I.  Why  are  the  italicized  forms  wrong?  Correct 
them. 

I.  I  should  be  astonished  if  you  succeed  in  doing  any- 
thing of  the  sort.  2.  He  will  be  thankful  if  you  would '^z.y 
him  even  a  part.  3.  If  you  would  take  pains  enough,  you 
z£^/// succeed.  4.  I  intended  to  have  insisted  on  it.  5.  We 
happened  to  have  been  present  on  that  occasion. 

IL  Construct  sentences  illustrating  the  use  of  can, 
cannot,  may,  may  not,  and  the  present  tense,  the  past 
tense,  and  the  past  participle  of  lie,  lay,  sit,  set,  rise, 
and  7'aise. 

41.  Other  Common  Errors.  —  Avoid  the  following 
common  errors  :  — 


CHAP,  iv]  Incorrect  English  47 

(i)  The  adjective  instead  of  the  adverb;  e.g,  **  he 
discovered  it  easy  "  for  "  he  discovered  it  easily." 

(2)  The  adverb  instead  of  the  predicate  adjective 
after  verbs  of  incomplete  predication ;  e.g.  "  it  smells 
szveetly''  for  ''it  smells  siveet.''  After  feel  and  look, . 
however,  we  are  accustomed  to  use  both  bad  and 
badly.  "  Look  badly "  is  generally  understood  to 
mean  ''to  look  ill";  "to  look  bad''  might  sometimes 
be  understood  to  be  the  equivalent  of  "  wicked."  In 
such  cases  badly  must  be  regarded  as  an  adjective, 
in  spite  of  its  termination  (compare  lowly). 

(3)  The  double  negative;  e.g.  "I  didn't  see  him 
nowhere."  The  Old  English  usage  of  making  a 
negative  statement  emphatic  by  employing  two  or 
more  negative  words,  has  survived  only  in  vulgar 
EngHsh.  In  modern  literary  or  colloquial  Enghsh, 
two  negatives  are  equivalent  to  an  affirmative. 

(4)  Without  for  unless,  as  in  "  I  will  not  go  without 
you  do." 

(5)  The  so-called  split  infinitive,  as  in  "to  thor- 
oughly convince."  This  placing  of  an  adverb  or 
adverb  phrase  between  the  sign  of  the  infinitive  {to) 
and  the  infinitive  was  very  uncommon  up  to  twenty 
or  thirty  years  ago.  Since  then  the  split  infinitive, 
though  violently  attacked  by  purists,  has  come 
to  be  widely  used  in  colloquial  and  newspaper 
English,  and  is  sometimes  employed  by  writers  of 
repute.  In  some  cases,  it  has  the  distinct  advantage 
of  bringing  an  adverb  into  an  emphatic  position ;  e.g. 
"  I  wish  to  thoroughly  understand  the  matter."     In 


4^  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  iv 

most  cases,  however,  it  is  exceedingly  awkward,  and 
the  pupil  is  advised  regularly  to  avoid  it. 

(6)  The  superlative  for  the  comparative;  e.g.  "the 
best  of  the  two."  for  "the  better  of  the  two.'* 

(7)  Either  or  neither  for  any ;  e.g.  ''either  of  the 
three  "  for  ''any  of  the  three." 

(8)  Different  than  for  different  f7Vin,  as  in  "it 
seems  different  than  the  one  I  saw  yesterday." 

(9)  The  false  position  of  only^  as  in  "  I  only  received 
it  yesterday"  for  "I  received  it  only  yesterday." 
Only  immediately  precedes  the  word  or  group  of 
words  that  it  modifies. 

(10)  The  position  of  the  correlatives  either — or, 
neither — nor^  both  —  and^  not  only  —  bnt  also^  etc., 
as  in  "  he  neither  offended  him  nor  his  brother  "  for 
"  he  offended  neither  him  nor  his  brother." 

(11)  Dofit  for  doesn't,  as  in  "he  don't  want  to  go.** 
The  expression  has,  however,  some  authority  on  its 
side,  and  may  possibly  be  accepted  in  colloquial 
(not  in  literary^  English. 

(12)  A  false  participial  construction;  e.g.  "find- 
ing him  at  home,  it  was  decided  not  to  go  further," 
for  "finding  him  at  home,  we  decided  not  to  go 
further."     See  §  53,  (S)- 

(13)  The  preposition  like  for  the  conjunction  as;  eg. 
"  he  does  not  swim  like  you  do  "  for  "  he  does  not 
swim  as  you  do."  Like  is  properly  used  only  with 
nouns  and  their  equivalents ;  e.g.  "  he  looked  like 
you,"  but  "  he  looked  as  you  used  to  look." 


CHAP,  iv]  Incorrect  English  49 

EXERCISE  13 

Correct  the  italicized  errors  in  the  following  sen- 
tences :  — 

I.  He  would  have  laid  there  till  now  if  we  hadn't  helped 
him  up.  2.  Can  I  have  the  key  to  your  room,  or  shall  I 
ask  the  janitor  for  it?  3.  The  studio's  artistic  owner  is 
famous  among  her  friends.  4.  If  it  don't  come  before  five, 
I  shall  have  to  go  for  it  myself.  5.  Have  either  of  you  a 
copy  of  this  morning's  paper?  6.  It  is  just  as  good,  if  not 
better,  than^  any  other  brand  in  the  market.  7.  I  have  no 
doubt  but  what"^  he  meant  to  have  told  you  so  long  ago. 
8.  Every  intelligent  student  ought  to  use  their  influence  in 
behalf  of  such  a  scheme.  JC9.  The  old  method  is  quite  differ- 
ent in  character  than  that  now  in  use.  10.  He  knew,  as 
even  a  boy  younger  than  him  would  have  known,  that  he 
was  only  admitted  on  certain  conditions.  11.  Freeing  MvcciH^ 
self  with  a  great  effort,  the  blow  was  warded  off,  and  Harold 
escaped  unharmed.  12.  We  are  very  careful  who  we  let  in 
the  club,  for  we  want  to  keep  it  very  select.  13.  A  house 
built  in  frosty  weather,  or  which  has  bad  bricks  and  mortar, 
is  likely  to  be  damp.  14.  He  reads  his  speeches  7//^<?  a 
curate  reads  the  lessons.  15.  But  I  am  sure  that  every  one 
likes  it,  whether  they  saw  it  by  day  or  night.  16.  All  around 
the  room  is  a  wainscoting  of  cherry  wood  and  which  extends 
halfway  up  to  the  ceiling.  17.  Each  of  these  windows  are 
hung  with  blue  and  old-gold  draperies.  18.  Alone  stands 
Andover's  paper,  on  a  height  to  which  only  four  of  the  col- 
lege journals  have  attained.  19.  I  said  I  would  not  go 
without  he  promised  to  pay  all  my  expenses.  20.  After  a 
time,  she  with  her  Aunt  and  a  guide  and  Quentin  are  sent 
away  to  a  castle.V  21.  A  woman  who  voted  differently  than 

1  Notice  that  if  not  better  is  parenthetical,  and  that  as  good  than  is 
not  an  English  idiom. 

2  A  possible  construction.     Doubt  but  or  doubt  that  is  preferable. 

E 


so  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  iv 

her  husband  3id  would  be  an  exception.  22.  Brandy  sets 
in  motion  the  functions  of  the  body  that  fatigue  or  emotion 
have  paralyzed.  23.  We  have  the  most  highly  wrought  state 
of  individualism  of  all  other  countries  on  the  face  of  the 
globe.  24.  To  fully  understand  the  position  of  the  Aca- 
dians,  we  must  go  back  and  examine  the  previous  forty 
years.  25.  All  Nova  Scotia  or  Acadia,  comprehended  within 
its  ancient  boundaries,  as  also  the  city  of  Port  Royal,  were 
ceded  to  the  English.  26.  She  said  that  she  had  lain  the 
book  on  the  table.  27.  Four  voted  in  the  negative  and  one 
member  was  absent,  who)u  it  is  claimed  by  the  opposition 
would  have  also  voted  in  the  negative.  '28.  '  I  won't  go 
y  without  one  of  the  servants  comes.  29.  Neither  Senators 
/^^^  ^T)awes  nor  Hoar  were  in  their  seats  to-day.  30.  She  was 
smaller  in  stature  than  either  oi  her  three  sisters.  31.  He 
set  down  again.  32.  *This  is  a  phenomena  common  to  an 
immense  number  of  diseases. y^ 3.  The  seventeenth  century 
evidently  had  a  different  notion  of  books  and  women  than 
that  which  flourishes  in  the  nineteenth.  '34.  Other  people 
have  troubles,  I  suppose,  as  well  as  me,  35.  lago  was 
Othello's  ancient  and  in  whom  he  placed  the  greatest  con- 
fidence. 36.  In  intellectual  and  moral  strength  Maggie 
TuUiver  is  what  George  EHot  was ;  in  physical  beauty  she 
is  what  George  Eliot  would  have  chosen  to  have  been, 
37.  Hospitahty  was  one  of  x\ddison's  characteristics,  and  he 
rarely  met  a  friend  but  what  he  asked  him  to  his  lodgings 
to  have  a  talk  over  a  bottle  of  wine.  38.  The  wealth  of  the 
many  make  a  very  Httle  show  in  statistics ;  the  wealth  of  the 
few  make  a  great  show  in  statistics.  39.  There  are  points 
where  in  my  mind  Wordsworth  reaches  as  high,  if  not  higher, 
than  any  other  poet  of  his  time.  40.  Presidents  McCosh 
and  Eliot,  each  of  whom  was  a  member  of  the  university 
crew  of  their  colleges,  excelled  in  athletics.  41.  Charle- 
magne patronized  not  only  learned  men,  but  also  established 


CHAP,  iv]  Incorrect  English  51 

educational  institutions.  42.  Mrs.  Jones,  who  is  now  eighty- 
four,  gave  her  first  ball  more  than  sixty  years  ago,  at  her 
house  in  BowHng  Green,  which  shows  the  rapid  growth  of 
the  city.  43.  A  convent,  a  lunatic  asylum,  or  a  husband  — 
either  will  do.  44.'  One  aliimnce  recently  pledged  $5000 
for  improvements  in  the  opportunities  for  physical  culture 
at  Vassar,  on  condition  that  ^5000  should  be  raised  by 
others.  45.  He  considered  it  his  duty  to  remonstrate  with 
a  woman  whom  he  plainly  saw  was  very  much  out  of  place 
there.  46.  Moliere's  plot  and  idea  is  often  taken  from  other 
writers,  which  he  does  not  attempt  to  deny.  47.  Language 
of  that  sort,  profane  and  illiterate,  and  which  I  am  ashamed 
to  repeat,  could  have  been  used  only  by  a  member  of  a  very 
low  strata  of  society.  48.  The  then  monarchies  are  strongly 
in  contrast  with  the  now  democratic  governments.  49.  A 
more  startling  phenomena  than  this  upturned  strata  has 
never  been  observed  in  geology's  whole  history.  50.  Much 
as  I  had  hoped  to  have  seen  him,  he  don't  seem  to  in  the 
Last  regret  missing  me.  51."  Neither  his  father  nor  he  were 
willing  to  have  anything  to  do  with  a  man  who  treated  them 
so  shamefully.  52.  I  neither  attempted  to  conceal  from 
myself  nor  from  him  that  the  enterprise  would  be  a  danger- 
ous one.  ''53.  Yi.^YidAV'^o  son-in-laws.  54.  Give  me  three 
spoonsful.  55.  He  owes  six  months  interest.  56.  It  was  a 
three  j'<?<^ri-  course.  57.  Mens'  shoes  mended  here.  58.  The 
history  of  the  epoch  centres  on  the  lives  of  the  king  and 
queen.  59.'  Mine  is  larger  than  your's.  Go.  She  forgot 
her' s  hwt  hiOM^t  theirs.  6i.*Therc  are  three  places  open 
to  me,  but  I  don't  care  for  either  of  them.  62.  This  is  the 
man  as  saw  the  fire  first.  62,*.  Can  I  go  this  afternoon? 
64.  He  left  it  laying  on  the  ground.  6^.^  ^ovf  finely  you 
look.  66.  How  sweetly  it  smells.  ^67." He  went  a  different 
way  than  I  did.  ^  68.  Why  don't  he  come?  69.  How  sadly 
they  must  have  felt.      70.*  Neither  of  them   are   coming. 


52  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  iv 

71.  Neither  toil  nor  grief  have  killed  him.  72.  Nothing 
but  misfortunes  await  mt.  73.  I  don't  beUeve  that  he  said 
any  more  than  he  expected  to  have  said.  74.  He  can  choose 
whoever  he  pleases.  75.  Everybody  has  gone  except  you 
and  /.  '  76.  Who  did  you  see?  ^77.  Between  you  and  /, 
I  can't  understand  it.  78.  There  is  no  sense  in  me  going. 
79.  Is  there  any  chance  of  the  legislature  passing  such  a 
bill?  80.  I  told  those  who  I  met.  81.  A  ba-cteria  cannot 
be  seen  with  the  naked  eye.  82.  It  was  an  interesting 
phe?io?riena.  %2>-  A  lieutenant  a7td  captain  were  wounded. 
84.  Sugar's  rise  was  not  unexpected.  85.  It  is  not  her''s. 
^6.  The  fire  totally  destroyed  the  building,  whose  contents 
alone  were  worth  half  a  million  dollars.  87.  I  never  knew 
him  to  behave  himself  so  bad,  ^Z.  She  looked  beautifully. 
89!  Can  I  borrow  your  pencil?  90*.  I  laid  down  for  a  while. 
91.' He  was  found  laying  on  the  ground.  92.  Set  down 
here.  93.  I  sat  the  child  on  the  grass.  94.  I  won^t  have 
nothing  to  say  to  you.  95.  It  was  a  conception  founded 
mainly  on  his  earlier  work  and  which  presents  him  as  a 
refined  and  idyllic  poet.  96.  The  writer,  himself  a  scholar, 
a7id  whose  long  and  devoted  labors  have  added  to  scientific 
knowledge,  denies  the  fact.  97.  A  witness  who  the  lawyer 
expected  to  be  present  was  kept  away.  98.  She  was  en- 
gaged to  a  man  whom  they  say  is  very  wealthy.  99.  No 
one  has  come  except  you  and  /.  100.  No  one  but 
officers  were  allowed  inside  the  lines.  10 1.  Patience,  as 
well  as  knowledge,  are  required  in  such  an  undertaking. 
102.  Neither  the  officer  nor  his  companion  ivere  allowed  to 
enter.  103.  Every  one  should  attend  to  their  own  affairs. 
104.  I  should  be  obHged  to  you  if  you  will  hdp  me  in  this 
matter.  105.  The  roads  are  bad  and  the  weather  disagree- 
able, which  accounts  for  his  absence. 

42.    HTiall  and  will.  —  Shall  and  will  are  used  with 
the  infinitive  to  form  (i)  the  future  tenses  of  all  verbs, 


CHAP,  iv]  Incorrect  English  53 

and  (2)  verb-phrases  of  various  kinds.  The  distinc- 
tion between  shall  and  will  in  the  future  tenses  and 
in  these  verb-phrases  is  a  very  deHcate  one,  and 
should  be  carefully  studied.  The  failure  to  make 
the  distinction  is  generally  regarded  as  a  sign  of  im- 
perfect education,  though  it  is  common  among  intel- 
ligent and  educated  people  in  the  United  States, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland,  and  is  by  no  means  unknown 
in  England.  Indeed,  some  philologists  affirm  that 
the  distinction  is  an  artificial  one,  and  cannot  be  ex- 
pected long  to  survive,  in  all  its  rigor,  even  in  literary 
EngHsh.  The  student  can,  however,  easily  master 
the  main  differences  between  the  uses  of  shall  and 
will^  if  they  are  not  already  familiar  to  him,  and  it  is 
his  duty  to  do  so. 

43.  Shall  and  will  in  Future  Tenses.  —  The  future 
tenses  of  all  verbs  employ  shall  in  the  first  person, 
and  will  in  the  other  two  persons ;  e.g.  "/  or  we  shall 
go,"  ''you,  he,  or  they  zvill  go."  This  is  the  invariable 
usage  in  all  expressions  denoting  merely  a  future 
state  or  action.  It  should  be  noticed  that  "  I  shall 
go  "  does  not  mean  *'  I  am  resolved  to  go  ";  it  is  merely 
equivalent  to  *'  I  am  going."  "  He  will  go  "  does  not 
mean  "  he  is  willing  to  go  "  ;  it  is  merely  equivalent  to 
he  is  going." 

EXERCISE  14 

In  which  of  the  following  sentences  are  shall  and 
will  used  in  forming  future  tenses  } 

I.  I  shall  come  if  possible.     2!  \  will  be  there.     3.   You 
shall  not  go.     4.  You  will  come,  I  hope.     5.    He  shall  not 


54  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  iv 

go,  I  say.      6.  He  will  be  here  by  night.      7.  They  shall 

start  early.     8.  I  will  make  no  attempt  of  the  sort.  9.  I 

shall  do  nothing  of  the  sort.      10.  They  will  have  a  long 
journey. 

44.  Shall  and  ivill  in  Verb-phrases.  —  Shall  2m^  zvill 
are  used  to  form  verb-phrases  in  which  the  original 
meanings  of  shall^  (obligation)  and  ze^/// (inclination) 
are  prominent.  In  these  verb-phrases  the  use  of 
shall  and  will  is  exactly  the  opposite  of  that  in  the 
future  tenses ;  that  is,  zvill  is  used  with  the  first  per- 
son, shall  with  the  second  and  third  persons.  ''/  zvill 
go,"  then,  is  equivalent  to  "I  intend  to  go";  ^' you 
shall  go  "  or  "  they  shall  go  "  is  equivalent  to  "  you  or 
they  are  obliged  to  go." 

The  distinction  between  the  meaning  of  shall  and 
zvill  m  the  future  tense  and  their  meaning  in  verb- 
phrases  is  shown  in  the  following  table  :  — 

Future  Tense 

I  shall  come  =  I  am  going  to  come. 

You  will  come  =  You  are  going  to  come. 

He  will  come  =  He  is  going  to  come. 

We  shall  come  =  We  are  going  to  come. 

You  will  come  =  You  are  going  to  come. 

They  will  come  =  They  are  going  to  come. 

1  It  may  assist  the  pupil  to  bear  in  mind  that  shall,  whether  in  a 
future  tense  or  a  verb-phrase,  implies  that  the  speaker  is  in  control  of 
the  action  expressed  by  the  verb.  It  can  be  used,  then,  only  (i)  when 
he  speaks  of  his  own  action,  that  is,  in  the  first  person;  and  (2)  when 
he  commands. 


CHAP,  iv]  Incorrect  English  55 

Verb-phrases 

I  will  come  =    I  want  to  come. 

You  shall  come    =    You  must  come. 
He  shall  come     =   He  must  come. 
We  will  come      =   We  want  to  come. 
You  shall  come   =   You  must  come. 
They  shall  come  =  They  must  come. 

EXERCISE  15 

In  Exercise  14  substitute  "going  to"  iox  shall  and  will 
when  they  are  used  in  future  tenses,  and  "  must "  or  "  intend 
to  "  when  they  are  used  in  verb-phrases. 

45.  Shall  and  will  in  ftuestions.  —  In  questions  of 
the  first  person  will  is  not  used.  We  say  "  shall  we 
go.^"  but  not  ''will  we  go  .'^ "  We  may  use  will, 
however,  when  the  verb  is,  as  it  were,  quoted  from  a 
preceding  affirmative  statement;  e.g.  "we  will  go, 
won't  we.^"  In  questions  of  the  second  and  third 
persons  either  shall  or  will  is  used,  according  to  the 
answer  expected.  "  Shall  you  go  1 "  implies  the 
answer  "I  shall  (not)."  "  Will  you  goV  implies 
the  answer  "  I  will  (not)." 

EXERCISE  16 

Insert  shall  or  will:  — 

t.  — ^ —  we  go  if  it  rains?  2.  — ^  you  believe  me  if 
I  tell  you?  3.  -^ —  the  prisoner  succeed  in  escaping? 
4.   The  question  before  us  for  decision  is,  — —  the  prisoner 

be  discharged?      5.   you   be   there?      6.   you 

meet  me  there?     7.   you  be  able  to  come?     8. 


$6  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  iv 


we  ask  him  to  dinner?     9. not  you  help  me?     10.  

not  you  ask  him? 

46.  Shall  and  will  in   Dependent   Clauses.  —  In   a 

dependent  clause  representing  a  quotation,  shall  or 
will  is  used  according  as  shall  or  will  would  be  used 
if  the  words  were  actually  quoted.  We  write,  for 
instance,  "I  say  that  he  will  come,"  i.e.  "I  say, 
^he  will  come.'"  But  we  may  write,  "he  says  that 
he  shall  come"  or  "he  says  that  he  will  come,"  with 
a  difference  in  meaning.  In  "  he  says  that  he  shall 
come,"  shall  come  is  a  future  tense,  for  the  meaning 
is  "he  says,  'I  shall  come.' "  In  "he  says  that  he 
will  come,"  will  come  is  a  verb-phrase,  for  the  mean- 
ing is,  "he  says,  'I  will  come.'"  It  should  be 
noticed  that  a  clause  is  felt  to  represent  a  quotation 
when  it  follows  say^  thinks  declarey  maintain^  hope, 
fear^  and  similar  words. 

EXERCISE  17 

Insert  shall  or  will:  — 

I.   We  reply  that  we be  glad  to  accept  the  invitation. 

2.    He  says  he not  believe  us.     3.  The  prisoner  thinks 

that  he  succeed  in  escaping.     4.  The  prisoner  fears 

that  he  not  escape.     5.    He  doubts  whether  he  

be  able  to  come. 

47.  Mistakes  in  the  Use  of  shall  and  will.  —  The 

most  common  mistakes  in  the  use  of  shall  and  will 
are  the  following  :  — 

(i)  The  use  of  will  for  shall  in  the  first  person  in 


CHAP,  iv]  Incorrect  English  57 

declarative  sentences;  i.e.  "if  I  am  not  careful,  I  will 
fall";  that  is,  "if  I  am  not  careful,  I  intend  to  fall." 

(2)  The  use  of  will  for  shall  in  questions  of  the 
first  person;  e.g.  ''will  I  go?"  that  is,  "do  I  intend 
to  go  ?  "  —  a  question  which  is  absurd,  because  no 
one  but  the  questioner  can  know  his  own  intention. 

(3)  The  use  of  will  for  shall  in  dependent  clauses 
of  the  kind  described  in  §  46  ;  e.g.  "  I  fear  that  I  will 
not  be  able  to  go,"  "  he  fears  that  he  will  not  be  able 
to  go,"  which  mean,  "  I  fear  that  I  do  not  intend  to 
be  able  to  go,"  "he  fears  that  he  does  not  intend 
to  be  able  to  go." 

It  should  be  noticed  that  people  who  have  spoken 
the  language  from  infancy  almost  never  use  shall 
incorrectly  for  will.  Their  mistakes  are  almost 
invariably  in  the  use  of  will  for  shall. 

EXERCISE    18 

I.  Are  shall  and  will  used  correctly  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences } 

I.   We  have  decided  that  we  will  not  be  able  to  go. 

2.  It   is   likely   that    I   will  be    gone   before   you   return. 

3.  Will  we  attack  the  city  to-night?  4.  The  Americans 
will  be  interested  to  learn  from  what  sources  our  navy  has 
been  increased.  5.  I  do  hope  that  you  will  be  present. 
6.  I  fear  that  we  shall  not  arrive  in  time.  7.  I  hope  that 
we  shall  not  be  late.  8.  He  declares  that  he  7vill  not  go 
under  any  circumstances.  9.  You  will  do  nothing  of  the 
sort.^     10.    I  fear  that  I  will  not  return  alive. 

^  A  polite  way  of  expressing  a  command. 


58  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  iv 

II.  In  clauses  referring  to  the  future,  should  and 
would  are  used  precisely  like  shall  and  will}  Are 
they  used  correctly  in  the  following  sentences } 

I.  I  wouldV^^  to  hear  his  opinion.  2.  I  was  afraid  that 
we  would  freeze  to  death.  3.  If  we  had  to  fight  again 
soon,  it  is  not  likely  that  we  woidd  have  trouble  in  obtaining 
recruits.  4.  I  feared  that  we  should  not  arrive  in  time. 
5.  I  hoped  that  we  would  be  in  time.  6.  They  said  that 
they  woidd  not  come.  7.  Would  you  go  if  you  were  I? 
8.  Should  you  go,  under  the  circumstances?  9.  Under 
the  circumstances  he  should  certainly  not  risk  a  dollar. 
10.   In  these  days  women  woidd  be  happy  at  home. 

III.  In  the  following  sentences  should  shall  or 
will  be  used  }  Why  }  If  both  forms  could  be  used, 
state  what  the  difference  in  meaning  would  be. 

I.    No    matter   what  you  say,   I   — —   not    go   another 

step.     2.  By  to-morrow  morning  I  be  far  away.     3.    I 

not  listen  to  you.      4.    I  be  glad  to  have  you 

come.     5.   You  not  go  :  that  was  his   expHcit  com- 
mand.    6.  You  be  sixteen  to-morrow.     7.  You 

not  go,  I  hope,  under  any  circumstances.     8.  You go, 

or    you  be   sorry  for  it.      9.    Thou  not  steal. 

10.  We  be  there  at  eight.     11.  We  be  there  at 

eight,    I    promise  you.      12.  We   be   late,   he   says. 

13.  Unless  they  are  fools,  they  not  go  on  any  such 

errand.      14.  It  is  my   intention   that   they  — —  start  at 

once.     15.  we  join  them?     16.  not  we  go  too? 

17.   they   be   allowed   to   enter?     18.   you  be 

allowed  to  enter?     19.    you  join  us? 

1  Should  is  also  used  to  express  duty  or  obligation,  as  in  "  he  really 
should  go";  and  would  to  express  habitual  action,  as  in  "he  would 
often  go." 


CHAP,  vj  The  Sentence  59 


A 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  SENTENCE:    ITS  GRAMMATICAL  STRUCTURE 


-f 


48.  Our  Method  of  Procedure.  —  49.  The  Sentence,  the 
Clause,  and  the  Phrase.  — Exercise  19. —  50.  Simple,  Com- 
plex, and  Compound  Sentences.  — Exercise  20.  — 61.  Analysis 
OF  Simple  Sentences.  —  Exercise  21,  — 52.  Analysis  of  Com- 
plex AND  Compound  Sentences.  —  Exercise  22.-53.  Fun- 
damental Errors  in  the  Construction  of  Sentences.  — 
Exercise  23. 

48.  Our  Method  of  Procedure.  —  The  principles  of 
rhetoric  are  of  two  sorts,  —  those  that  concern  the 
choice  of  words  and  those  that  concern  the  arrange- 
ment of  words.  We  shall  assume  for  some  little  time 
that  the  pupil  chooses  the  words  best  suited  for  his 
purpose,  and  confine  ourselves  for  the  moment  to 
helping  him  to  arrange  his  words  in  the  most  effec- 
tive manner.  Later  we  shall  return  to  the  matter  of 
the  choice  of  words. 

49.  The  Sentence,  the  Clause,  and  the  Phrase.  —  It 
is  impossible  to  understand  the  rhetorical  principles 
that  govern  the  arrangement  of  words  without  hav- 
ing clearly  in  mind  the  grammatical  principles  that 
govern  sentence-structure.  It  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance that  the  pupil  should  be  able  to  analyze 
sentences  readily,  distinguishing  modifiers  from  the 


6o  Elements  of  Rhetoric  Fchap.  v 

words  or  phrases  they  modify,  and  subordinate 
clauses  from  principal  clauses.  In  order  to  make 
sure  that  the  pupil  is  fully  acquainted  with  the 
process  of  analysis,  some  time  must  be  spent  in 
reviewing  certain  essential  parts  of  English  gram- 
mar, beginning  with  the  following  points  :  — 

(i)  Groups  of  words  containing  a  subject  and  a 
predicate  are  called  clauses;  e.g.  that  he  should  be 
there  ;  if  he  comes  ;  whoever  he  is. 

(2)  A  principal,  or  independent,  clause  is  one 
that  makes  by  itself  a  complete  statement;  e.g.  I 
shall  go. 

(3)  A  subordinate,  or  dependent,  clause  is  one  that 
is  meaningless  unless  associated  with  a  principal 
clause;  e.g.  if  I  go. 

(4)  A  sentence  must  contain  at  least  one  principal 
clause;  e.g.  "If  he  comes,  I  shall  leave  the  room." 

(5)  Groups  of  words  that  do  not  contain  a  subject 
and  a  predicate  are  called  phrases ;  e.g.  at  last,  to  con- 
clude the  matter. 

(6)  Groups  of  words,  whether  clauses  or  phrases, 
may  be  classified  as  equivalent  to  nouns,  verbs, 
adjectives,  and  adverbs.  For  example,  in  '^  that 
he  should  be  there  surprises  me  greatly,"  the  itali- 
cized words  form  a  noun-group,  the  subject  of  the 
verb  surprises ;  in  "he  could  have  gone,''  a  verb- 
group,  of  which  he  is  the  subject;  in  "the  watch 
that  I  bought,''  an  adjective-group,  modifying  watch  ; 
in  "  I  struck  him  by  accident,"  an  adverb-group, 
modifying  struck. 


CHAP,  v]  The  Sentence  6 1 

EXERCISE  19 

I.  In  the  following  passage  the  words  in  certain 
groups  are  connected  by  hyphens.  Tell  which  groups 
are  phrases  and  which  clauses. 

"  Within-our-beds  awhile  we  heard 
The  wind  that-round-the-gables-roared, 
With  now-and-then  a  ruder  shock, 
Which-made-our- very-bedsteads-rock. 
We  heard  the  loosened  clapboards  tost, 
The  boardnails  snapping  in-the-frost ; 
And  on  us,  through-the-unplastered-wall, 
Felt  the  light  sifted  snowflakes  fall. 
But  sleep  stole  on  as-sleep-will-do 
When-hearts-are-light  and  [when]-life-is-new. 

—  Whittier:   Snow-Bound, 

II.  In  the  following  sentences  pick  out  {a)  the 
phrases,  {b)  the  subordinate  clauses.^  Are  they 
equivalent  to  nouns,  verbs,  adjectives,  or  adverbs?  [\ 

I.  That  you  were  there  is  well  known.  2.  Bunyan  has 
told  us,  with  very  pardonable  vanity,  that  in  New  England 
his  dream  was  the  daily  subject  of  the  conversation  of 
thousands.  3.  He  who  hesitates  is  lost.  4.  There  I  saw 
a  sight  that  can  be  better  described  than  [it  can  be] 
imagined.  5.  The  spot  where  I  *  stood  I  remember  dis- 
tinctly. 6.  As  he  walked  on,  he  stopped  his  song.  7.  If 
you  are  responsible  for  it,  I  advise  you  to  be  careful. 
8.  Seeing  the  hill,  he  stopped.  9.  It  is  hard  to  under- 
stand you. 

1  If  further  practice  be  necessary,  a  similar  exercise  may  be  based 
on  any  of  the  passages  quoted  elsewhere  in  the  volume. 


62  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  v 

III.  Construct  (i)  three  sentences  consisting  each 
of  only  one  clause ;  (2)  three  consisting  each  of  one 
principal  and  two  subordinate  clauses;  (3)  three  con- 
sisting each  of  two  principal  and  two  subordinate 
clauses. 

50.  Simple,  Complex,  and  Compound  Sentences. — 
Sentences  may  be  classified,  according  to  their  form, 
as  (i)  simple,  (2)  complex,  or  (3)  compound. 

(i)  A  simple  sentence  contains  only  a  single  state- 
ment, command,  or  question ;  e.g.  {a)  ''  the  rain  is 
falling  ;  "  {b)  *^  rain  and  hail  were  pouring  down  ;  '* 
{c)  "it  thunders  and  lightens  terribly."  It  should  be 
noticed  that  in  a  simple  sentence  there  may  be  more 
than  one  subject,  as  in  {b)\  more  than  one  predicate, 
as  in  (c) ;  or  even  both,  as  in  {d\  "  the  rain  and  hail 
began  in  an  instant  and  poured  down  incessantly." 
Even  in  the  last  case,  however,  the  form  of  a  simple 
statement  is  preserved,  for  each  subject  appHes  to 
each  verb,  and  vice  versa. 

(2)  A  complex  sentence  contains  one  simple  or 
principal  statement,  command,  or  question,  and  one 
or  more  subordinate  clauses ;  e.g.  "  the  rain  fell  so 
fast  that  we  were  drenched  through  before  we  could 
reach  home." 

(3)  A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more 
principal  statements,  frequently  united  by  conjunc- 
tions ;  e.g.  "  the  rain  descended,  and  the  floods  came, 
and  the  winds  blew."  Each  principal  statement  may, 
however,  be  modified  by  subordinate  clauses. 


CHAP,  v]  The  Sentence  63 

EXERCISE  20 

I.  Are  the  following  sentences  simple,  complex,  or 
compound  ?  In  the  complex  and  compound  sentences, 
point  out  the  principal  and  subordinate  clauses. 

"  In  the  short  action  and  pursuit,  the  French  lost  fifteen 
hundred  men,  killed,  wounded,  and  takeh.  Of  the  re- 
mainder, some  escaped  within  the  city,  and  others  fled 
across  the  St.  Charles  to  rejoin  their  comrades  who  had 
been  left  to  guard  the  camp.  The  pursuers  were  recalled 
by  sound  of  trumpet ;  the  broken  ranks  were  formed  afresh, 
and  the  English  troops  withdrawn  beyond  reach  of  the  can- 
non of  Quebec.  Bougainville,  with  his  corps,  arrived  from 
the  upper  country,  and,  hovering  about  their  rear,  threatened 
an  attack ;  but  when  he  saw  what  greeting  was  prepared  for 
him,  he  abandoned  his  purpose  and  withdrew.  Townshend 
and  Murray,  the  only  general  officers  who  remained  unhurt, 
passed  to  the  head  of  every  regiment  in  turn,  and  thanked 
the  soldiers  for  the  bravery  they  had  shown  ;  yet  the  triumph 
of  the  victors  was  mingled  with  sadness,  as  the  tidings  went 
from  rank  to  rank  that  Wolfe  had  fallen." 

—  Parkman  :  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac. 

II.  Write  three  complex  sentences;  a  compound 
sentence  with  two  principal  clauses,  each  of  which 
is  modified  by  a  subordinate  clause;  and  two  other 
compound  sentences. 

51.  Analysis  of  Simple  Sentences.  —  To  analyze  a 
simple  sentence  it  is  necessary  to  find  (i)  the  subject, 
(2)  the  predicate,  (3)  the  object  or  predicate  comple- 
ment, (4)  the  modifiers  of  the  subject,  (5)  the  modi- 
fiers of  the  predicate,  (6)  the  modifiers  of  the  object 
or  predicate  complement.     Modifiers  of  the  subject, 


64  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  v 

the  object,  or  the  predicate  complement  must  be 
adjectival,  answering  the  question  "what  kind  of,'* 
and  may  be  adjectives,  adjective-phrases,  or  adjective- 
clauses.  Modifiers  of  the  predicate  must  be  adver- 
bial, answering  the  question  "how,"  "when,"  "where," 
"  to  what  degree,"  or  "  what  for,"  etc.,  and  may  be 
adverbs,  adverb-phrases,  or  adverb-clauses.  The 
analysis  of  a  sentence  may  be  performed  mentally, 
or  indicated  on  paper  by  some  convenient  arrange- 
ment of  lines  or  columns. 

Take,  for  example,  the  sentence,  "  Above  the  level 
bit  of  timber  to  the  east  a  vast  dome  of  pale,  undaz- 
zling  gold  was  rising,  silently  and  swiftly."  Here 
(i)  the  subject  is  dome,  (2)  the  predicate  was  rising; 
there  is  (3)  no  object.  The  subject  is  modified  by 
(4)  the  article  a,  the  adjective  vast,  and  the  adjec- 
tive-phrase of  .  .  .  gold.  The  predicate  is  modified 
by  (5)  the  adverbs  sileittly  and  swiftly,  and  by  the 
adverb-phrase  above  the  level  bit  of  timber  to  the  east. 
This  adverb-phrase  may  be  further  analyzed  into  the 
following  parts:  {a)  the  preposition  above;  (b)  its 
object,  the  noun  bit;  (c)  the  modifiers  of  bit,  viz.  the 
article  the,  the  adjective  level,  the  two  adjective- 
phrases  of  timber  and  to  the  east. 

This  analysis  may  be  graphically  represented  in 
the  following  manner,  by  placing  the  subject,  predi- 
cate, and  object  in  separate  columns.  The  modifiers 
of  each  are  placed  directly  below  it. 


CHAP.  V] 


TJie  Sentence 


65 


Subject 

Predicate 

Object 

dome 

was  rising 

none 

Adjectives :  a,  vast 

Adjective-phrase  : 

of  .  .  .  gold 

Adverbs  :  silently, 

swiftly 
Adverb-phrase  : 

above  the  level 

bit  of  timber  to 

the  east 

none 

Another  convenient  method  of  representation  is 
the  following,  in  v^hich  adjectives,  adjective-phrases, 
adverbs,  and  adverb-phrases  are  placed  on  oblique 
lines  joining  the  words  or  phrases  they  modify. 

dome was  rising 

^  It 


There  is  some  danger  that  the  pupil  will  learn  to 
depend  too  much  on  graphical  representations  of 
analysis.  These  methods  are  often  convenient  in 
dealing  with  intricate  sentences,  but  the  student 
should  make  it  his  ambition  to  acquire  the  power  of 
holding  in  his  mind  the  mutual  relations  of  the  parts 


(3^  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  v 

of  a  sentence.  He  will  find  it  of  great  advantage  in 
the  study  of  rhetoric  and  literature  and  of  the  gram- 
mar of  other  languages. 

EXERCISE  21 

Show,  by  one  of  the  methods  explained  on  page  65, 
the  structure  of  the  following  simple  sentences :  — 

I.  Be  not  disturbed  at  trifles,  or  at  accidents  common  or 
unavoidable.  2.  With  all  his  reflective  habits,  he  never 
made  up  his  mind  on  a  subject.  3.  His  adherents  accounted 
for  this  by  the  astonishing  magnitude  of  his  ideas.  4.  He 
was  exactly  five  feet  six  inches  in  height,  and  six  feet  five 
inches  in  circumference.  5.  He  daily  took  his  four  stated 
meals,  appropriating  exactly  an  hour  to  each.  6.  "  Proceed, 
culprit,"  said  the  Governor,  twirling  up  his  mustaches. 
7.  They  sun  themselves  in  the  great  man's  Hght,  and  feel 
it  to  be  their  own  element.  8.  They  cast  the  dignity  of 
man  from  their  downtrod  selves  upon  the  shoulders  of  a 
hero,  and  will  perish  to  add  one  drop  of  blood  to  make 
that  great  heart  beat,  those  giant  sinews  combat  and  con- 
quer. 9.  The  world-wide  swell  of  solemn  music,  with  the 
clang  of  a  mighty  bell  breaking  forth  through  its  regulated 
uproar,  announces  his  approach.  10.  He  comes,  —  a  severe, 
sedate,  immovable,  dark  rider,  waving  his  truncheon  of  uni- 
versal sway,  and  passing  along  the  lengthened  line  on  the 
pale  horse  of  the  Revelation. 

52.    Analysis  of  Complex  and  Compound  Sentences.  — 

Complex  sentences  differ  from  simple  sentences  in 
having  a  clause  or  clauses  as  modifiers  of  the  subject, 
predicate,  or  object.  Take,  for  example,  the  com- 
plex sentence,  "  Then  he  rented  an  upstairs  tenement, 


CHAP.  V] 


The  Sentence 


67 


in  which  his  family  lived  on  terms  of  equality  and 
the  greatest  intimacy  with  the  family  of  the  landlord 
occupying  the  ground  floor,  until  he  could  buy  or 
build  a  house  for  himself,  the  upper  story  of  which 
could  in  time  be  rented."  Here  /^^  is  the  subject,  not 
modified ;  rented  is  the  predicate,  modified  only  by 
then ;  tenejnent  is  the  object,  modified  by  the  adjec- 
tives an  and  ttpstairs^  and  the  adjective-clause  which 
takes  up  the  remainder  of  the  sentence.  The  main 
structure  of  the  sentence  is  so  simple  that  it  need  not 
be  represented  by  any  scheme.  The  final  clause, 
however,  is  intricate,  and  its  analysis  may  be  repre- 
sented as  follows  :  — 


Subject  and  Modi- 
fiers 

Predicate  and  Modifiers 

family 

lived 

Pronoun  (possessive 
case,  with  force  of 
adjective)  :  his 

Adverb-phrases:  (i)  on  terms  of 
equality  and  the  greatest  intimacy ; 
(2)  with  the  family  of  the  landlord 

Adverb-clause :  (3)  until  he  could 
buy  or  build  a  house  for  himself 

This  graphical  scheme  so  far  makes  clear  the  intri- 
cacy of  the  long  adjective-clause  that  we  can  see  fur- 
ther that  in  (2)  family  is  modified  by  the  participial 
adjective-phrase  occupying  the  ground  floor^  and  that 
in  (3)  house  is  modified  by  the  adjective-clause  the 
upper  story  of  which  could  in  time  be  rented. 


68                        Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  v 

The  same  analysis  may  also  be  shown  as  follows  :  — 
he rented tenement 


family-- 


-  lived 


he 

could  buy 

or 

build 

house 

p/ 

f 

7~ 

1/ 

V 

o 

'^/ 

/ 

t-U 

•<$'/ 

/ 

^ 

^/ 

tr 

^/ 

§■ 

story - 


-  could  be  rented 


Adjective-clauses  and  adverb-clauses  are  placed  on 
lower  lines    parallel  with  the  principal  clause.     On 


CHAP,  v]  The  Sentence  69 

the  links  between  the  lines  are  placed  the  connecting 
words  or  phrases. 

Compound  sentences  can  be  divided  at  once  into 
the  simple  or  complex  sentences  that  compose  them. 
These  simple  or  complex  sentences  can  then-  be 
treated  in  the  ways  described  above. 

EXERCISE  22 

Show,  by  the  method  explained  on  pages  66-6%y 
the  structure  of  the  following  sentences  :  — 

*'  The  boy,  who  was  staggering  under  the  weight  of  his 
melodious  instrument,  had  been  expecting  this  command, 
and  without  waiting  for  the  midshipman  to  communicate 
the  order,  he  commenced  that  short  rub-a-dub  air,  that  will 
at  any  time  rouse  a  thousand  men  from  the  deepest  sleep, 
and  cause  them  to  fly  to  their  means  of  offence  with  a  com- 
mon soul.  The  crew  of  the  Ariel  had  been  collected  in 
groups  studying  the  appearance  of  the  enemy,  cracking  their 
jokes,  and  waiting  only  for  this  usual  order  to  repair  to  the 
guns ;  and  at  the  first  tap  of  the  drum,  they  spread  with 
steadiness  to  the  different  parts  of  the  little  vessel,  where 
their  various  duties  called  them.  The  cannon  were  sur- 
rounded by  small  parties  of  vigorous  and  athletic  young 
men  ;  the  few  marines  were  drawn  up  in  array  with  muskets  ; 
the  officers  appeared  in  their  boarding- caps,  with  pistols 
stuck  in  their  belts,  and  naked  sabres  in  their  hands." 

—  Cooper:    The  Pilot. 

53.  Fundamental  Errors  in  the  Construction  of  Sen- 
tences. —  Now  that  the  pupil,  by  practice  in  analy- 
sis, has  refreshed  his  knowledge  of  the  relation  of 
part  to  part  in  simple,  complex,  and  compound  sen- 


70  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  v 

tences,  he  cannot  fail  to  understand  the  nature  of 
certain  fundamental  errors.  These  errors  are  of  four 
sorts:  (i)  errors  in  the  construction  of  principal 
clauses ;  (2)  errors  in  the  construction  of  subordinate 
clauses ;  (3)  errors  in  the  relation  of  participial 
phrases  to  the  words  or  phrases  they  modify ; 
(4)  errors  in  the  relation  of  principal  clauses  to  each 
other  in  compound  sentences. 

(i)  A  common  error  in  the  writing  of  the  ignorant 
is  the  omission  of  {a)  the  principal  verb,  or  of  (b)  the 
whole  principal  clause ;  e.g.  (a)  "  Business  training, 
in  that  it  gives  the  editor  an  insight  into  the  financial 
workings  of  a  paper,  with  its  possible  income  and  its 
natural  expenses."  (b)  "When,  at  the  end  of  his 
journey,  covered  with  dust  and  completely  exhausted, 
the  messenger  stood  at  the  foot  of  the  low  hills  that 
separated  the  city  from  the  sea." 

It  is,  however,  wholly  proper  to  omit  the  verb  when 
(a)  it  can  be  readily  supplied  by  the  mind  from  the 
context,  or  when  (b)  the  group  of  words  is  rather 
an  exclamatory  phrase  than  a  principal  clause ;  e.g. 
{a)  *' First  [let  us  consider],  the  points  on  the  other 
side."  {b)  "At  last."  "To  be  sure."  "A  shout,  a 
wild  rush,  a  struggle,  and  the  fort  was  taken." 

(2)  Writers  not  trained  in  the  logical  and  gram- 
matical analysis  of  sentences  frequently  destroy  the 
sense  of  subordinate  clauses  by  omitting  essential 
words  or  confusing  different  constructions ;  e.g. 
(a)  "  It  is  proposed  by  General  Garcia  when  each 
soldier  leaves  the   service   he   shall    obtain    a    certi- 


CHAP,  v]  The  Sentence  yi 

fied  statement  of  the  amount  of  money  due  him." 
{b)  "Although  having  been  open  less  than  a  week, 
the  gymnasium  is  already  an  established  factor  in 
the  student's  life."  In  (a)  a  that  before  when  is 
essential  to  the  sense  and  the  grammatical  structure. 
In  {b)  the  writer  confounds  having  been  open  and 
although  it  has  been  open, 

(3)  Participial  phrases  sometimes  are  made,  gram- 
matically, the  modifiers  of  nouns  or  other  words  to 
which  they  do  not  logically  relate ;  e,g.  "  Running 
as  fast  as  possible,  the  burning  building  was  at  last 
reached."  Here,  grammatically,  the  building  appears 
to  be  the  thing  that  was  running.  The  sentence 
should  read,  *'  Running  as  fast  as  possible,  they  at  last 
reached  the  burning  building."      Compare  §  31  (12). 

(4)  A  fundamental  error,  likewise,  is  that  which 
we  may  call  the  "  comma  sentence."  When  two  or 
more  principal  clauses  occur  in  the  same  sentence, 
they  must,  as  a  rule,  be  connected  by  conjunctions  or 
separated  by  semicolons  or  colons.  They  should  not 
be  separated  by  commas.     For  example  :  — 

[Correct.]  "  He  was  allowed  to  have  no  counsel  in  his 
defence,  and  his  request  to  see  Bonaparte  was  again 
refused." 

[Correct.]  "  He  was  allowed  to  have  no  counsel  in  his 
defence ;  his  request  to  see  Bonaparte  was  again  refused." 

[Correct.]  "  He  was  allowed  to  have  no  counsel  in  his 
defence  :  even  his  request  to  see  his  brother,  who  was  a 
lawyer,  was  sternly  refused."^ 

^  For  the  difference  in  effe^^t  between  a  semicolon  and  a  colon,  see 
§§  56  and  57. 


y2  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  v 

[Incorrect.]  '^  He  was  allowed  to  have  no  counsel  in  his 
defence,  even  his  request  to  see  his  brother,  who  was  a 
lawyer,  was  sternly  refused." 

The  practice  of  separating  by  commas  principal 
clauses  in  a  compound  sentence  is  allov^able,  how- 
ever, in  a  series  of  comparatively  simple  clauses 
similar  in  construction ;  e.g,  *^  I  came,  I  saw,  I 
conquered."  "The  birds  sang  sweetly,  the  river 
rippled  by,  the  clouds  sailed  on." 

Nothing,  except  habitual  bad  spelling,  can  give  a 
stronger  impression  of  illiteracy  than  the  use  of  the 
comma  in  separating  clauses  which  either  should  be 
made  independent  sentences,  or,  if  they  can  be  con- 
sidered as  belonging  to  the  same  sentence,  should  be 
separated  by  semicolons.  The  fault  is  particularly 
common  among  students  who  have  not  profited  by 
their  instruction  in  grammar. 

EXERCISE  23 

On  the  basis  of  what  is  stated  in  the  preceding 
section,  correct  orally  the  mistakes  in  the  following 
sentences :  — 

I.  Although  having  been  open  for  less  than  one  week, 
the  gymnasium  is  an  established  factor  in  the  student's  life, 
v/  2.  The  cause  is  obvious,  recently  some  liquor-sellers  were 
arrested  and  the  chief  of  the  tribe  wanted  to  testify  against 
them.  3.  The  climate  of  Porto  Rico  is  comparatively  good, 
better,  indeed,  than  that  of  Cuba,  consequently  it  will  become 
a  favorite  resort  during  the  winter  for  American  tourists. 
4.  It  is  true  that  last  year's  Freshmen  had  to  do  various 


CHAP,  v]  The  Sentence  73 

foolish  things  and  a  few  drank  milk  besides,  but  they  always 
put  up  a  good  fight,  in  fact  they  drank  milk  because  they 
were  held  down  and  the  fluid  poured  in.  5.  We  are  glad 
to  note  the  liberal  poHcy  the  authorities  have  adopted  in 
laying  down  a  set  of  rules  for  the  use  of  the  gymnasium,  yet 
there  is  one  regulation  which  should  certainly  be  put  into 
force,  this  is  requiring  visitors  to  keep  off  the  floor.  6.  But 
there  is  really  no  more  reason  for  selecting  that  date  than 
many  others,  take  the  twelfth  of  August  when  the  American 
flag  was  raised  over  Honolulu,  or  further  back  to  when 
Alaska  was  purchased,  or  further  still  to  the  date  of  the 
acquiring  of  Texas.  7.  The  season  has  been  a  disgrace 
both  to  the  president  of  the  League  and  to  the  men  who 
took  part  in  the  games,  hardly  a  day  has  passed  without 
rowdyism.  8.  From  this  time  on  he  had  a  series  of  con- 
flicts with  the  French.  Until  now,  old  and  a  captive,  he 
has  come  to  the  end  of  his  active  career.  9.  Thus  the 
story  ends,  as  many  do,  "they  were  married  and  lived 
happy  ever  after."  10.  The  Maules  w^ere  a  family  of  wood- 
choppers,  the  father  very  often  turned  an  honest  penny  by 
his  clever  use  of  the  hammer  and  the  saw.  1 1 .  This  Uni- 
versity is  cramped  for  room.  Since,  in  the  first  place,  it  has 
not  got  room  enough  for  a  large  dormitory,  which  is  one 
of  the  elements  of  a  college  Hfe.  12.  Imagining  a  weak, 
effeminate,  simple  man,  a  good  idea  of  Price  is  obtained. 
13.  A  thorough  coward,  and,  on  the  whole,  a  fellow  to  be 
pitied.  14.  Having  always  felt  a  deep  interest  in  astro- 
nomical inquiries,  and  without  knowledge  of  the  results  of 
Newton  and  Laplace,  this  question  was  investigated  by  myself 
and  by  my  staff.  .15.  The  advantages  of  this  compulsory 
physical  course  are,  I  might  say,  almost  self-evident,  while 
they  were  down  at  49th  Street,  they  had  no  gymnasium, 
and  the  physical  education  was  entirely  neglected.  16.  The 
fellows  as  a  result  took  but  little  exercise,  in  fact  most  of 


74  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  v 

y  them  took  absolutely  none.  17.  A  man  without  any  con- 
science, almost  an  assassin,  one  who  delighted  in  cruelty 
and  hesitated  to  do  nothing  so  long  as  it  would  benefit  him- 
self. 18.  It  was  not  until  I  had  finished  the  book  when  I 
could  lay  it  down.  19.  I  now  come  to  my  third  point, 
being  the  question  of  economic  development.  20.  At  the 
game,  however,  there  is  a  large  crowd  of  anxious  spectators 
who  are  watching  for  a  lively  scrap,  the  more  roughness  and 
brutaUty  that  is  shown,  the  more  the  fun  and  the  more  the 
excitement  for  those  looking  on.  21.  In  the  old  cane  rush 
everybody  took  part,  each  one  looked  out  for  himself  and 
enjoyed  an  exhilarating  good  sport.  22.  Losing  my  way 
in  the  forest,  it  was  dinner-time  when  I  reached  home. 

23.  There  are  several  changes  that  should  be  made  in  the 
Freshman  course.  That  the  entrance  examination  should 
be  so  conducted  as  to  require  only  the  subjects  which  the 
student   intends  to   pursue   during   his   college    education. 

24.  Take  any  of  the  large  universities,  such  as  Yale  or  Har- 
vard, we  find  that  they  cover  many  times  more  ground  than 
Columbia  does.  25.  This  year  many  of  the  old  favorites 
have  again  entered  the  ring  also  many  new  men.  Among 
the  latter  several  Freshmen  from  whom  great  things  were 
expected.  26.  Catching  the  train  at  last,  it  seemed  that  his 
trials  were  ended.  — ^ 


CHAP,  vi]  Punctuation  75 


CHAPTER  VI 

PUNCTUATION 

54.   The  Theory   of   Punctuation.  —  55.   The   Period.  —  Exer- 
cise 24.-56.  The  Semicolon. —  Exercise  25.  — 57.  The  Colon. 

—  Exercise  26.-58.  The  Comma. -Exercise  27.-59.  The 
Question  Mark.  — 60.  The  Exclamation  Point.  — 61.  Paren- 
theses AND  Brackets.  — 62.  The  Dash.  —63.  The  Apostrophe. 

—  64.  Quotation  Marks. —  65.  Italics.  — 66.  The  Hyphen. — 
Exercise  28.  —  67.  Capitals.  —  Exercise  29. 

54.  The  Theory  of  Punctuation.  —  Punctuation  is  a 
system  for  indicating,  by  various  points,  the  gram- 
matical structure  of  written  language.  A  period, 
for  instance,  shows  that  a  group  of  words  constitutes 
a  declarative  sentence.  In  punctuating,  the  student 
should  bear  in  mind  that  his  object  is  to  divide  words 
into  groups  according  to  their  grammatical  relations. 

55.  The  Period. — The  period  is  used  (i)  to  mark 
the  end  of  sentences,  or  (2)  to  show  that  a  letter  or 
combination  of  letters  is  not  a  real  word  but  an 
abbreviation.  With  regard  to  the  use  of  the  period 
to  mark  the  end  of  a  sentence,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  say  that  the  failure  to  indicate  the  close  of  a  sen- 
tence in  this  way  is  a  plain  sign  of  illiteracy.  See 
§  S3  (4).  The  pupil  is  already  familiar  with  common 
abbreviations  of  English  words,  and  he  will  have 
little  or  no  difficulty  in  ascertaining  the  meaning  of 
any  with  which  he  is  not  yet  acquainted.    With  abbre- 


76 


Elements  of  Rhetoric 


[chap.  VI 


viations  of  foreign  words  he  may  have  more  difficulty. 
In  the  following  list  are  given  those  he  should  cer- 
tainly be  able  to  understand  and  use.  The  list  also 
includes  a  few  abbreviations  of  English  words. 


A.B.  or  B.A.   (Latin,  Artium 

Baccalaureiis) ,  Bachelor  of 

Arts. 
A.D.  (Latin,  anno  domini), 

in  the  year  of  our  Lord, 
ad  lib.    (Latin,  ad  libitum), 

at  pleasure. 
A.M.  (Latin,  Artium  Magis- 

te7')    or   M.A.,    Master    of 

Arts. 
3et.  (Latin,  cetate),  aged, 
a.m.  (Latin,  ante  meridiem), 

before  noon. 
B.C.,  before  Christ. 
B.S.,  Bachelor  of  Science. 
C.E.,  Civil  Engineer. 
Cf.  (Latin,  cofifer),  compare. 
C.O.D.,  collect  on  delivery. 
D.C.L.,  Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 
D.D.,  Doctor  of  Divinity. 
Dele  (Latin,  meaning  "erase"), 

a  term  used  in  correcting 

proof. 
D.G.  (Latin,  dei  gratia),  by 

the  grace  of  God. 
D.V.     (Latin,    deo    volente), 

God  willing. 


e.g.  (Latin,  exempli  gratia), 
for  example. 

etc.  (Latin,  et cetera),  and  so 
forth. 

H.R.H.,  His  Royal  Highness. 

ibid.  (Latin,  ibidem,  "  in  the 
same  place  "),  a  term  used 
in  footnotes,  in  reference 
to  a  book  just  mentioned. 

i.e.  (Latin,  id  est),  that  is. 

inst.  (Latin,  mense  instante), 
the  present  month. 

LL.B.^  (Latin,  Legum  Bac- 
calaureus).  Bachelor  of 
Laws. 

LL.D.,  Doctor  of  Laws. 

M.  (Latin,  meridies),  noon. 

M.  (French,  Monsieur),  Mr. 

M.A.,  Master  of  Arts. 

M.D.  (Latin,  Medici7ice  Doc- 
tor) ,  Doctor  of  Medicine. 

Mgr.  (French,  Mons eigne U7'), 
an  ecclesiastical  title. 

Mile.  (French,  Mademoi- 
selle),   Miss. 

MM.  (French,  Messieurs), 
used  as  the  plural  of  M. 


1  The  double  letter  denotes  that  the  word  was  in  the  plural. 
MS.  and  MSS. 


Cf. 


CHAP.  Vl] 


Punctuation 


77 


Mme.     (French,    Madame), 

Mrs. 
M.P.,  Member  of  Parliament. 
MS.,  manuscript. 
MSS.,  manuscripts. 
Ph.D.     (Latin,     Philosophice 

Doctor),    Doctor   of   Phil- 
osophy. 
N.B.  (Latin,  nota  bene),  mark 

well, 
pinx.     (Latin,    pinxit),     he 

painted  it. 
p.m.  (Latin,  post  meridieni), 

after  noon, 
p.p.c.  (French,  pour  prendre 

conge),  to  take  leave, 
pro  tem.  (ha.tm, pro  tempore), 

for  the  time  being, 
prox.  (Latin,  proximo),  next 

month. 


P.S.    (Latin,  post  scriptum), 

postscript. 
Q.E.D.    (Latin,     quod    erat 

demonstrandum),       which 

was    to   be   proved, 
q.v.  (Latin,  quod  vide),  which 

see. 
sculp.    (Latin,    sculpsit),    he 

sculptured  or  engraved  it. 
S.P.Q.R.      (Latin,      Senatus 

Populusque  Romanus),  the 

Senate    and    the     Roman 

people, 
stet.  (Latin,  "let  it  stand"), 

used  in  proof  or  MS. 
ult.      (Latin,     ultirno),     last 

month, 
vid.  (Latin,  vide),  see. 
viz.  (Latin,  videlicet),  to  wit, 

namely. 


EXERCISE  24 

Construct  sentences  illustrating  the  use  of  the  abbrevia- 
tions mentioned  in  the  preceding  section. 

56.  The  Semicolon.  —  Semicolons  have  tv^o  uses  :  — 
(i)  To  separate  the  principal  clauses  in  a  com- 
pound sentence,  when  no  conjunction  is  used.  When 
a  conjunction  is  used,  the  separation  is  frequently 
marked  by  a  comma;  but  a  semicolon  (as  in  this 
sentence)  is  sometimes  used  v^hen  there  is  a  more 
decided  break  betv^een  the  parts  of  the  sentence,  or 
when  the  sentence  is  long  and  contains  many  commas. 


78  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vi 

(2)  To  separate  clauses  or  phrases  from  each  other 
in  a  series  of  similar  phrases  or  subordinate  clauses, 
when  commas  would  not  be  sufficient  to  indicate 
clearly  where  each  clause  or  phrase  began  and  ended. 

Examples :  — 

(i)  He  received  only  ten  guineas  for  this  stately,  vigor- 
ous poem  ;  but  the  sale  was  rapid  and  the  success  complete. 

There  was  now  a  sound  behind  me  like  a  rushing  blast ; 
I  heard  the  clatter  of  a  thousand  hoofs ;  and  countless 
throngs  overtook  me. 

When  his  men  had  thus  indemnified  themselves,  in  some 
degree,  for  their  late  reverses,  Cortes  called  them  again 
under  their  banners ;  and,  after  offering  up  a  grateful 
acknowledgment  to  the  Lord  of  Hosts  for  their  miraculous 
preservation,  they  renewed  their  march  across  the  now 
deserted  valley. 

(2)  We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident:  that  all 
men  are  created  equal ;  that  they  are  endowed  by  their 
Creator  with  inherent  and  inalienable  rights ;  that  among 
these  are  hfe,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness ;  that 
to  secure  these  rights  governments  are  instituted  among 
men,  deriving  their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of  the 
governed  ;  that  whenever  any  form  of  government  becomes 
destructive  of  these  ends,  it  is  the  right  of  the  people  to 
alter  or  to  abolish  it,  and  to  institute  new  government,  laying 
its  foundations  on  such  principles  and  organizing  its  powers 
in  such  form,  as  to  them  shall  seem  most  Hkely  to  effect 
their  happiness. 

EXERCISE  25 

(i)  Find  five  sentences  in  which  the  principal  clauses 
are  separated  by  semicolons.  (2)  Find  five  sentences  in 
which  semicolons  are  used  to  separate  a  series  of  similar 
phrases  or  subordinate  clauses. 


CHAP,  vi]  Punctuation  79 

57.  The  Colon. — The  colon  indicates  that  what 
follows  it  is  an  explanation  or  specification  of  what 
precedes  it.     It  is  used  :  — 

(i)  To  introduce  a  list,  a  quotation,  or  an  explana- 
tory proposition.  When  the  quotation  or  proposition 
begins  a  new  paragraph,  a  dash  is  usually  placed  after 
the  colon,  as  in  the  second  sentence  of  this  section. 

(2)  In  a  compound  sentence  in  which  the  principal 
clauses  are  not  connected  by  a  conjunction,  to  show 
that  the  following  clause  explains  or  illustrates  the 
preceding  clause. 

(3)  After  such  phrases  of  address  as  Dear  Sir} 
Ladies  and  Gentlemen^  etc. 

Examples :  — 

(i)  He  provided  himself  with  the  following  books: 
Worcester's  dictionary,  a  Latin  grammar,  an  atlas,  and  a 
Bible. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident :  that,  etc.  See 
example  under  §  56  (2)  above. 

He  read,  on  a  marble  tablet  in  the  chapel  wall  opposite, 
this  singular  inscription :  *'  Look  not  mournfully  into  the 
past." 

(2)  I  am  no  traveller:  it  is  ten  years  since  I  have  left 
my  village. 

The  general  refused  to  believe  him  :  the  risk  was  too 
great. 

EXERCISE  26 

Find  five  examples  of  (i),  five  of  (2),  and  three  of  (3). 

^  At  the  beginning  of  a  letter,  Dear  Sir  may  be  followed  by  (i)  a 
comma,  (2)  a  comma  and  a  dash,  or  (3)  a  colon.  It  should  never  be 
followed  by  a  semicolon.      (3)  is  more  formal  than  (2)  and  (i). 


So  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vi 

58.  The  Comma.  —  As  we  have  seen,  the  period  is 
used  to  close  a  declarative  sentence,  and  the  semi- 
colon and  colon  to  mark  off  the  greater  divisions  of 
a  sentence.  The  office  of  the  comma  is  to  point  off 
the  smaller  divisions  of  a  sentence.  It  is  used  in  the 
following  ways :  — 

(i)  In  a  compound  sentence,  to  separate  the  dif- 
ferent clauses,  when  there  is  not  a  sufficient  break 
in  the  thought  to  make  a  semicolon  necessary.  See 
above,  §  56  (i). 

He  rested  himself  in  the  Chancellor's  room  till  the  debate 
commenced,  and  then,  leaning  on  his  two  relatives,  he 
Hmped  to  his  seat. 

His  exertions  redeemed  his  own  fame,  but  they  effected 
little  for  his  country. 

(2)  To  separate  the  different  parts  of  a  compound 
predicate,  unless  the  connection  between  them  is 
very  close. 

The  slightest  particulars  of  that  day  were  remembered, 
and  have  been  carefully  recorded. 

He  lost  the  thread  of  his  discourse,  hesitated,  repeated 
the  same  words  several  times,  and  was  so  confused  that,  in 
speaking  of  the  Act  of  Settlement,  he  could  not  recall  the 
name  of  the  Electress  Sophia. 

I  see  and  hear  you. 

(3)  In  a  complex  sentence  in  which  the  dependent 
clause  precedes,  to  separate  the  dependent  clause 
from  the  principal  clause.  When  the  dependent 
clause  follows,  the  comma  is,  as  a  rule,  not  needed. 


CHAP,  vi]  Punctuation  8i 

If  you  are  wise,  you  will  trust  him  implicitly. 

Although  I  saw  him,  I  could  not  wait. 

I  would  not  stop  until  he  called  out  to  me. 

(4)  To  mark  off  a  relative  clause  that  does  not 
actually  restrict  the  meaning  of  its  antecedent.  No- 
tice the  difference  between  {a)  "  he  sent  me  the  very 
book  which  I  wanted,"  and  (U)  "  he  sent  me  your 
book,  which  I  shall  be  glad  to  return  to  you."  In 
{a)  the  relative  clause  is  equivalent  to  an  adjective, 
limiting  book.  In  (/^)  the  relative  clause  is  equivalent 
to  an  additional  principal  clause,  *^and  I  shall  be 
glad  to  return  it." 

He  sympathized  with  the  distress  of  the  race  from  which 
he  sprang. 

He  was  welcomed  by  loud  huzzas,  in  which  the  very 
magistrates  of  the  city  joined. 

The  union,  which  a  few  months  before  had  seemed  all 
powerful,  was  now  dissolved. 

The  only  bond  of  union  which  remained  was  now  dis- 
solved. (Notice  the  difference  between  this  sentence  and 
the  preceding.) 

(5)  In  general,  to  indicate  the  beginning  and  end 
of  a  group  of  words,  whether  a  phrase  or  a  clause, 
which  is  so  long  or  important  that  it  is  necessary  that 
the  mind  should  regard  it  separately. 

Within  the  fort  and  its  precinct,  the  English  exercised, 
by  permission  of  the  native  government,  an  extensive 
authority,  such  as  every  great  Indian  landowner  exercised 
within  his  own  domain. 

The  natives,  who  composed  a  considerable  part  of  these 


82  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vi 

little  garrisons,  had  not  yet  been  trained  in  the  discipline  of 
Europe,  and  were  armed,  some  with  swords  and  shields, 
some  with  bows  and  arrows. 

Proceeding  in  this  way,  they  subdued  the  insurgents. 

(6)  To  mark  off  adverb-phrases  when  they  open 
a  sentence,  or  are  not  closely  connected  with  the 
context.  Short  adverb-phrases  occurring  in  their 
usual  places  and  closely  connected  with  the  context 
are,  however,  not  marked  off  by  commas. 

On  his  arrival  in  England,  he  found  himself  an  object  of 
general  interest  and  admiration. 

With  rare  delicacy,  he  refused  to  receive  this  token  of 
gratitude. 

The  case  was  heard,  according  to  the  usage  of  the  time, 
before  a  committee  of  the  whole  house. 

From  a  child  he  had  hated  the  English. 

He  refused  with  emphasis  this  token  of  gratitude. 

(7)  To  mark  off  adverbs  and  adverb-phrases  which 
have  a  connective  force.  Notice  the  difference  be- 
tween {a)  **you  see,  then,  that  you  have  been  misled,'* 
and  {b)  "  you  then  saw  that  you  had  been  misled." 

This,  on  the  other  hand,  was  his  purpose. 
My  mission,  too,  is  one  of  peace. 
He  recalled,  however,  his  motive. 

(8)  To  mark  off  words  or  phrases  {a)  in  direct 
address  or  {U)  in  apposition.  Notice,  however,  that 
in  expressions  like  *'the  Emperor  William,"  William 
is  rather  a  noun  limited  by  Emperor  than  a  noun  in 
apposition  with  E^nperor. 


CHAP,  vi]  Punctuation  83 

{a)  I  do  not  understand  you,  sir. 

I  apologize,  ladies  and  gentlemen,  for  my  apparent  dis- 
courtesy. 

{b^  His  romantic  novel,  the  Castle  of  Otranto,  is  now 
unread. 

He  is  like  me  in  this,  that  he  cannot  resist  entreaty. 

(9)  To  separate  similar  words  or  phrases  used,  in  a 
series,  in  the  same  construction,  and  not  joined  by 
conjunctions. 

It  was  done  quickly,  neatly,  artistically. 

It  was  done  quickly  and  neatly. 

He  was  a  big,  hearty,  happy  fellow. 

The  horse  was  a  quiet,  sensible  old  beast.  [Here  quiet 
and  sensible  limit  old  beast,  not  beast  alone.] 

He  was  gay  and  jovial,  gloomy  and  despondent,  as  the 
weather  indicated. 

If  the  members  of  the  series  are  joined  by  con- 
junctions, commas  are  unnecessary.  When,  hov^^ever, 
a  conjunction  joins  the  last  two  members  of  the 
series,  the  comma  is  employed.^ 

Bread  and  butter. 

She  was  good  and  true  and  beautiful. 

They  visited  Rome,  Florence,  and  Venice. 

(10)  To  separate  the  subject  from  the  predicate, 
but  only  when  it  would  otherwise  be  hard  for  the 
reader  to  understand  the  construction  of  the  sentence. 

1  The  usage  of  many  writers  and  publishers,  however,  is  to  omit 
commas  in  such  cases;  that  is,  they  prefer  "  a,  b  and  c  "  to  "  «,  b,  and  c^ 
The  latter  usage,  as  described  above,  is  followed  in  this  book. 


84  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vi 

Whatever  is,  is. 

The  tattered  soldiers  who  were  finally  rescued  from  a 
danger  so  pressing  and  so  extraordinary,  numbered  scarcely 
a  hundred. 

( 1 1 )  To  indicate  the  omission  of  words  logically 
necessary  to  the  construction. 

One  was  tall ;  the  other,  short. 
Admission,  twenty-five  cents. 

(12)  Before  a  direct  quotation.  See  the  more 
formal  use  of  the  colon,  §  57,  i. 

He  kept  crying,  "  On  !  on  !  " 

*  As  he  fell,  he  heard  some  one  say,  "There  goes  another." 

(13)  In  dates,  addresses,  as  in  the  following 
examples :  — 

*  Jan.  I,  1899. 

Dr.  C.  H.  Smith,  Salem,  Essex  County,  Mass.^ 

EXERCISE  27 

I.  Find  three  sentences  illustrating  each  of  the  uses 
described  in  the  preceding  section.  2.  Give  reasons  for 
the  punctuation  of  the  extract  on  pages  124-126.  3.  Write 
a  short  passage  from  dictation,  paying  especial  attention  to 
punctuation. 

59.  The  ftuestion  Mark.  —  The  question  mark  is 
placed  at  the  end  of  every,  direct  question.  It  is  not 
used  with  indirect  questions. 

^  On  an  envelope  it  is  becoming  customary  to  omit  all  punctuation 
at  the  end  of  lines,  except  periods  after  abbreviaLi..ns. 


CHAP,  vi]  Punctuation  85 

Shall  I  go? 

I  ask  you,  "Shall  I  go?" 

I  asked  whether  I  should  go. 

60.  The  Exclamation  Point. — The  exclamation  point 
is  used  after  exclamatory  words,  phrases,  and  sen- 
tences. When  an  exclamatory  sentence  begins  with 
an  interjection,  it  is  usually  sufficient  to  place  a 
comma  after  the  interjection  and  to  reserve  the 
exclamation  point  until  the  end  of  the  sentence. 
When  an  unemphatic  interjection  begins  a  declara- 
tive sentence,  it  is  frequently  possible  to  omit  the 
exclamation  point  entirely.  As  a  rule  O  is  used 
only  in  vocative  expressions. 

Help  !     You  rascal !     Be  off  with  you  ! 

Ah,  you  are  back  again  ! 

Oh,  what  a  mess  I  have  made  of  it ! 

Oh,  I  didn't  see  you. 

Hear  me,  O  King  !     Oh  !  I  am  wounded  ! 

61.  Parentheses  and  Brackets.  —  Parentheses  are 
used  to  inclose  explanatory  matter  which  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  grammatical  construction  of  the 
sentence.  Brackets  have  the  same  general  office, 
but  are  generally  used  only  to  inclose  corrections, 
explanations,  or  similar  matter,  introduced  by  the 
author  into  the  statement  of  some  one  else. 

Prescott  ( 1 796-1 859)  was  a  brilliant  historian. 

It  is  said  (and  I  can  believe  that  it  is  true)  that  many 
still  believe  in  witches. 

It  was  at  that  moment  [10  a.m.],  the  colonel  goes  on  to 
say,  that  his  superior  officer  [General  Smith]  met  him. 


S6  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vi 

62.  The  Dash. — The  dash  is  used  to  indicate  a 
sudden  change  in  thought  or  construction.  Two 
dashes  have  the  general  effect  of  parentheses. 

Yes  —  no  —  I  scarcely  know  what  to  say. 

You  were  saying  that  — 

I  suppose  —  but  why  should  I  tell  you  ? 

His  father,  his  mother,  his  brothers,  his  sisters,  —  all  are 
dead. 

At  last  he  succeeded  in  opening  the  box  and  found  in 
it  —  nothing. 

He  had  two  constant  motives  —  love  of  man  and  love 
of  God. 

The  two  motives  —  love  of  man  and  love  of  God  —  were 
constant. 

63.  The  Apostrophe.  —  The  apostrophe  is  used  ( i )  to 
indicate  the  omission  of  a  letter  or  letters,  (2)  in 
forming  the  possessive  case,  and  (3)  (sometimes)  in 
forming  the  plurals  of  letters  and  figures. 

Don't,  shan't,  o'er,  John's,  horses',  his  abc's. 

64.  ftuotation  Marks.  —  Double  inverted  commas 
indicate  that  the  inclosed  matter  is  a  quotation. 
Single  inverted  commas  indicate  a  quotation  within 
a  quotation.  Double  quotation  marks  are  also  some- 
times used  to  indicate  the  title  of  a  book,  magazine, 
or  newspaper,  or  the  name  of  a  ship.     See  also  §  65. 

"•  To  be  or  not  to  be." 
**  Sir,"  said  1,  "  you  insult  me." 
The  word  "  coward  "  has  never  been  applied  to  me. 
This  was  his  reply  :  "  I  tell  you  that  he  said  only  last 
night,  'You  will  never  see  me  again.'  " 

This  "  History  of  English  Literature  "  is  worth  reading. 
The  wreck  of  the  "  Polar  Star." 


CHAP,  vi]  Punctuation  87 

65.  Italics.  —  The  term  "  italics  "  refers  to  a  special 
kind  of  type  used  in  printing;  thus,  italics.  Ordi- 
nary type  is  referred  to  as  "roman."  In  writing,  a 
single  line  drawn  underneath  a  word  is  understood 
to  be  the V equivalent  of  italics.  Italics  are  used  for 
(i)  words  especially  emphasized,  (2)  words  from  a 
foreign  language,  and,  sometimes,  as  in  this  volume, 
(3)  names  of  books,  newspapers,  magazines,  and 
ships.     See  §  64, 

To  his  amazement,  he  ^d^^N  footprints . 

The  carriage  rolled  away  from  \hQ  porte-cochere. 

His  History  of  English  Literature. 

The  wreck  of  the  Polar  Star. 

66.  The  Hyphen.  —  The  hyphen  is  used  as  follows :  — 
(i)  Between  the  parts  of  some  compound  words, 

son-in-law^  simple-hearted^  vice-president.  With  regard 
to  many  words,  usage  varies.  The  tendency  is  to 
omit  the  hyphen  and  write  the  words  as  one,  e.g. 
football,  horsecar.  Compound  numerals  and  fractions 
retain  the  hyphen,  e.g.  twenty -nine,  one  hundred  and 
thirty -first,  two-thirds. 

(2)  To  separate  two  vowels  which  are  not  pro- 
nounced together,  e.g.  pre-eminent,  co-operation.  The 
diaeresis  is  frequently  used  for  the  same  purpose, 
e.g.  preeminent. 

(3)  To  mark  the  division  of  a  word  at  the  end  of 
a  line.  Usage  varies  as  to  the  way  in  which  many 
words  shall  be  divided.  The  subject  can  be  best 
studied  by  noticing  the   practice  of   good  printers. 


88  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vi 

The  pupil  may  bear  in  mind,  however,  (a)  that 
he  should  not  divide  words  of  only  one  syllable; 
{b)  that  he  should  be  guided  by  pronunciation ; 
(c)  that  syllables  should  begin,  if  possible,  with  a 
consonant.  For  example,  photog-raphy ,  Napo-leon, 
litera-ture, 

EXERCISE  28 

Find,  or  make  up,  three  illustrations  each  of  proper  uses 
of  the  question  mark,  the  exclamation  point,  parentheses, 
brackets,  the  dash,  dashes,  the  apostrophe,  double  quota- 
tion marks,  single  quotation  marks,  italics,  the  hyphen. 

67.  Capitals.  — The  pronoun  /  and  the  interjection 
O  are  written  with  capital  letters.  Capital  letters 
are  used  at  the  beginning  of  words  as  follows :  — 

(i)  The  first  word  of  a  sentence,  a  line  of  poetry, 
and  a  direct  quotation. 

Capitals  are  used  in  various  ways. 
*'  Making  his  rustic  reed  of  song 
A  weapon  in  the  war  with  wrong." 
His  last  words  were  :  "  Mother  is  coming." 
^  "  Run,"  he  said,  "  there  is  still  time." 

(2)  Names  and  titles  of  the  Deity  and  personal 
pronouns  referring  to  Him,  e.g.  the  Almighty^  the 
Holy  Spirit^  I  pray  that  He  will  aid  me. 

(3)  Proper  nouns  and  adjectives,  including  names 
of  streets,  the  months,  the  days,  races,  sects,  parties, 
nations,  and  parts  of  the  country.  For  example, 
John  Smithy  Broadway,  New  York  City,  February, 
Sunday,   Christmas,  Indian,  Episcopalian,  Democrat^ 


CHAP,  vi]  Punctuation  89 

English^  the  South,     Notice  that  negro  and  gypsy  are 
not  begun  with  capital  letters. 

(4)  Personal  titles,  whenever  they  are  equivalent 
to  proper  nouns.  In  compound  titles,  each  part 
begins  with  a  capital. 

The  President  and  the  Governor  of  Rhode  Island  are  here. 
The  Attorney-General  of  the  United  States. 

For  titles  of  books,  see  §  16. 

(5)  Personified  nouns,  and  names  of  great  events 
or  bodies  of  men. 

"  While  sallow  Autumn  fills  thy  lap  with  leaves." 
It  was  a  cool  day  in  autumn.^ 
At  the  beginning  of  the  Revolutionary  War. 
While  the  Legislature  is  sitting. 

EXERCISE  29 

I.  Construct  sentences  containing  in  all  twenty 
words  that  should  be  begun  with  capital  letters. 

II.  Which  words  in  the  following  sentences  should 
begin  with  capitals  }     Why  } 

I.  He  added,  with  a  look  of  curiosity,  "you  must  be  a 
stranger."  2.  "I  like,"  said  he,  " to  He  down  upon  the 
grass."  3.  In  1827  he  entered  the  senate,  serving  there 
until  the  president  appointed  him  secretary  of  state.  4.  At 
length  I  reached  fourth  street.  5.  It  was  easter  morning. 
6.  He  has  always  voted  the  republican  ticket.  7.  There  are 
more  negroes  in  the  south  than  in  the  west.  8.  No  one 
imagined  that  he  would  make  a  good  emperor.  9.  The 
king  died  on  tuesday.     10.  I  shall  see  you  this  summer. 

^  Notice  that  the  names  of  the  seasons  do  not  begin  with  capitals 
unless  they  are  personified. 


90  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vii 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE   SENTENCE:  ITS  RHETORICAL  STRUCTURE 

68.  Rhetorical  Structure  a  Question  of  Judgment  and  Taste. 

—  69.  The  First  Essential:  the  Grammatical  Structure 
MUST  BE  Evident.  — 70.  When  the  Gramimatical  Structure 
IS  most  Evident.  — 71.  Rule  for  avoiding  Intricate  Con- 
structions. —  Exercise  30.  —  72.  The  Second  Essential:  a 
Sentence  must  not  be  too  Long. —  73.  The  Good  Short 
Sentence.  — 74.  A  Series  of  Short  Sentences.  — 75.  The  Good 
Long  Sentence.  —  76.  The  Bad  Long  Sentence.— 77.  Rule 
AS  TO  the  Length  of  Sentences.— Exercise  31.— 78.  The 
Effective  Use  of  Short  and  Long  Sentences  in  Combina- 
tion.—  Exercise  32.-79.  The  Third  Essential:  the  Form 
OF  the  Sentence  should  ofi^en  stimulate  the  Reader.  — 
80.  The  Periodic  Sentence  and  the  Loose  Sentence:  Defi- 
nitions. —  Exercise  33.  — 81.  How  to  make  a  Loose  Sentence 
Periodic.  — Exercise  34.  —82.  The  Good  Periodic  Sentence. 

—  Exercise  35.-83.  The  Bad  Periodic  Sentence.— 84.  The 
Good  Loose  Sentence.  —  Exercise  36.  —  85.  Suspension  of 
Thought  even  in  the  Loose  Sentence.  —  Exercise  37.  — 
86.  The  Bad  Loose  Sentence.— Exercise  38.-87.  Rule  as 
TO  THE  Periodic  and  the  Loose  Sentence.  —  Exercise  39.— 
88.  The  Fourth  Essential:  Parallel  Structure.-,^  Exercise 
40.—  89.  Rule  as  to  Parallel  Structure.  —  90.  The  Value 
OF  Imitation.  —  Exercise  41. —  91.  Imitative  Practice  in 
Sentence  Building.— Exercise  42.— 92.  Summary.— Exercise  43. 

68.   Rhetorical  Structure  a  ftuestion  of  Judgment  and 

Taste.  —  In  the  preceding  chapter  we  discussed  the 

laws  of  grammatical  construction,  —  laws  which,   to 

insure  correctness,  must  be  followed  in  every  sentence. 

I    But  sentences  may  be  grammatically  correct  and  yet 

\  be   obscure  or  ineffective.     We  must  now  see  how 


CHAP,  vii]  The  Sentence  91 

sentences  may  not  only  be  correct  but   satisfy  the 
judgment  and  the  taste. 

69.  The  First  Essential:  the  Grammatical  Structure 
must  be  Evident.  —  The  essential  parts  of  a  sentence 
are,  grammatically,  the  subject  and  the  predicate.  It 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  these  parts  of  a  sentence 
are  essential  to  its  grammar  only  because  they  are 
essential  to  its  thought.  With  very  few  exceptions, 
all  thoughts  that  are  expressed  in  language  must  be 
expressed  in  just  this  way,  —  by  an  assertion  made 
by  means  of  a  verb  about  a  something  which  is 
represented  by  a  noun  or  its  equivalent.  It  is  there- 
fore of  the  utmost  importance  that  sentences  should 
be  constructed  in  such  a  way  that  these  essential 
parts  —  the  subject  and  the  predicate  —  shall  stand 
out  clearly,  for  they  are  the  parts  on  which  the 
thought  chiefly  depends  and  to  which  the  mind 
must  be  mainly  directed. 

70.  When  the  Grammatical  Structure  is  most  Evi- 
dent. —  It  is  obvious  that  the  most  satisfactory  sen- 
tence, from  this  point  of  view,  is  the  simple  sentence. 
In  the  simple  sentence,  unless  there  are  many  modi- 
fying phrases,  it  is  almost  impossible  for  the  subject 
and  the  predicate  not  to  stand  out  clearly.  Next  in 
order  come  the  short  complex  sentence  and  the  short 
compound  sentence  ;  and  last  the  more  intricate  com- 
plex and  compound  sentences.  As  an  illustration  of 
the  value  of  the  more  simple  sentence-forms  in  mak- 
ing thought  clear,  notice  the  ease  with  which  the  mind 
grasps    the    essential    elements    of    the    thought   in 


92  Ele^nents  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vii 

(a)  below,  and  the  difficulty,  comparatively  speaking, 
with  which  the  same  process  is  carried  on  in  {b). 

(a)  ''Such  language,  in  letters  the  most  private,  never 
meant  to  be  seen  by  other  eyes  than  those  to  which  they 
were  addressed,  gives  touching  testimony  to  the  sincere 
piety  of  his  [William  of  Orange's]  character.  No  man  was 
ever  more  devoted  to  a  high  purpose,  no  man  had  ever 
more  right  to  imagine  himself,  or  less  inchnation  to  pronounce 
himself,  entrusted  with  a  divine  mission.  There  was  noth- 
ing of  the  charlatan  in  his  character.  His  nature  was  true 
and  steadfast.  No  narrow-minded  usurper  was  ever  more 
loyal  to  his  own  aggrandizement  than  this  large-hearted 
man  to  the  cause  of  oppressed  humanity.  Yet  it  was  inevi- 
table that  baser  minds  should  fail  to  recognize  his  purity. 
While  he  exhausted  his  life  for  the  emancipation  of  a  people, 
it  was  easy  to  ascribe  all  his  struggles  to  the  hope  of  found- 
ing a  dynasty.  It  was  natural  for  grovelling  natures  to 
search  in  the  gross  soil  of  self-interest  for  the  sustaining 
roots  of  the  tree  beneath  whose  branches  a  nation  found 
its  shelter.  What  could  they  comprehend  of  living  foun- 
tains and  of  heavenly  dews?" 

—  Motley  :    T/ie  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic, 

{b)  *'  Authors  shall  be  ranked  here  [in  the  procession  of 
life],  whom  some  freak  of  Nature,  making  garhe  of  her 
poor  children,  had  imbued  with  the  confidence  of  genius, 
and  strong  desire  of  fame,  but  has  favored  with  no  corre- 
sponding power ;  and  others,  whose  lofty  gifts  were  unac- 
companied with  the  faculty  of  expression,  or  any  of  that 
earthly  machinery,  by  which  ethereal  endowment  must  be 
manifested  to  mankind.  All  these,  therefore,  are  melan- 
choly laughing-stocks.  Next,  here  are  honest  and  well- 
intentioned  persons,  who  by  a  want  of  tact  —  by  inaccurate 
perceptions  —  by  a  distorting  imagination  —  have  been  kept 


CHAP.  VII ]  The  Sentence  93 

continually  at  cross  purposes  with  the  world,  and  bewildered 
upon  the  path  of  Hfe.  Let  us  see  if  they  can  confine  them- 
selves within  the  line  of  our  procession.  In  this  class,  like- 
wise, we  must  assign  places  to  those  who  have  encountered 
that  worst  of  ill  success,  a  higher  fortune  than  their  abilities 
could  vindicate ;  writers,  actors,  painters,  the  pets  of  a  day, 
but  whose  laurels  wither  unrenewed  amid  their  hoary  hair ; 
politicians,  whom  some  malicious  contingency  of  affairs 
has  thrust  into  conspicuous  station,  where,  while  the  world 
stands  gazing  at  them,  the  dreary  consciousness  of  imbe- 
cility makes  them  curse  their  birth  hour." 

—  Hawthorne:  Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse. 

71.    Rule  for  avoiding  Intricate  Constructions.  —  The 

following  rule  will  be  of  great  service  to  the  inex- 
perienced writer  in  helping  him  to  avoid  intricate 
constructions :  — 

Until  you  have  attained  considerable  skill  in  framing  sen- 
tences, use  only  simple  sentences,  and  complex  and  compound 
sentences  in  which  there  are  only  one  or  two  subordinate 
clauses.  

EXERCISE  30 

The  following  sentences  are  intricate.  Rewrite 
them,  expressing  the  same  ideas  in  shorter  sentences, 
more  simple  in  structure. 

[The  first  sentence,  for  example,  may  be  changed  as 
follows  :  "Where  the  slopes  came  together  to  form  a  basin, 
the  water  lay  in  the  hollow  of  the  rocks.  The  lake  was  at 
first  concealed  by  the  clouds  that  hung  over  the  surface. 
As  the  process  went  on,  however,  it  came  into  view  in  the 
clear  hght  of  the  sun."] 

I.  As  the  process  went  on  the  lake,  which  had  at  first 
been  concealed  by  clouds  hanging  over  the  surface  of  the 


94  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vii 

water  that  lay  in  the  hollow  of  the  rocks,  where  the  slopes 
came  together  to  form  a  basin,  came  into  view  in  the  clear 
Hght  of  the  sun.  ^2.  The  men,  thinking  it  strange  that  they 
should  have  forgotten  one  of  such  evident  authority,  dressed 
as  he  was  in  the  official  costume  of  the  day  and  bearing  an 
imposing  looking  staff  which  suggested  official  dignity, 
turned  aside  and  began  to  converse  with  each  other  in  low 
tones.  3.  They  urged  him  to  read  the  article  he  had  just 
written,  though  it  had  not  been  prepared  for  just  such  an 
audience,  the  old  trait  that  his  friends  always  counted  on 
of  doing  whatever  he  thought  others  wished  was  once  more 
shown.  4.  And  here  let  me  caution  persons  grown  old  in 
active  business,  not  lightly,  not  without  weighing  their  own 
resources  —  since  there  may  be  danger  in  it  —  to  forego 
their  customary  employment  all  at  once.  5.  Among  the 
strange  fancies  he  had  at  the  beginning  of  his  freedom  — 
fancies  strange  and  various  and  unaccountable  as  are  our 
dreams  and  the  visions  of  the  night  which  come  to  us  with- 
out discoverable  cause,  though  psychologists  tell  us  that 
each  one  really  has  its  cause,  was  the  beUef  that  he  had 
already  spent  a  long  time  in  searching  for  the  missing  papers. 
6.  When  we  first  looked  up,  we  saw  approaching  a  man 
whose  grave  face  and  heavy  eyes  betokened  the  serious 
thought  which  is,  if  not  the  province,  at  least  the  habit,  of 
such  scholars  as  live  within  the  limits  of  the  university  town, 
he  had  a  book  in  his  hand,  however,  and  with  his  eyes  fixed 
on  this  was  quite  unconscious  of  our  presence.  7.  Much 
as  she  had  been  disposed  to  like  him  she  could  not  think 
without  anger,  hardly  without  contempt,  on  that  easiness  of 
temper,  that  want  of  proper  resolution,  that  now  made  him 
not  only  serve  his  designing  friends,  but  even  sacrifice  his 
own  inclinations,  harmless  as  these  were  to  their  happiness. 
8.  Wealth  is  not  a  sign  of  aristocracy,  on  the  contrary  the 
true  aristocratic  element,  the  best  bred  and  refined,  who 


CHAP.  VII  ]  The  Sentence  95 

come  from  a  good  old  stock  which  has  endured  and  been 
strengthened  through  years  and  centuries,  are  seldom  roll- 
ing in  riches,  it  is  those  who  suddenly  become  rich  that 
force  themselves  before  the  public  and  call  themselves  the 
aristocracy.  *  9.  To  be  able  to  write  a  clear,  truthful,  and 
logical  essay ;  to  be  able  to  deliver  it  in  a  masterly  way 
before  a  learned  and  critical  body  of  men  and  women  is 
one  of  the  greatest  pleasures  which  helps  to  pay  a  man  for 
his  many  hard-spent  hours  acquiring  the  thoughts  of  great 
men  while  pushing  aside  the  chaff  of  lesser  men.  10.  Being 
the  younger  son  of  an  EngHshman  of  title,  it  would  have 
been  considered  below  his  rank  to  have  engaged  in  the 
honorable  branches  of  mercantile  or  commercial  interests 
for  which  he  was  well  suited;  he  had  tried  unsuccessfully 
the  various  professions  which  offered  to  him,  and  having  no 
patrimony  he  fell  into  a  mode  of  life  which,  though  kindly 
and  simple  in  character,  had  nothing  broad  or  ennobling 
in  it  and  so  became  dwarfed  and  narrow.  11.  During 
Marner's  early  Hfe,  he  belonged  to  a  reUgious  sect  whose 
beliefs  were  entirely  foreign  to  those  of  an  inhabitant  of 
New  England ;  practising  his  religion  in  everything  he  did, 
which  is  quite  foreign  to  the  average  Yankee  farmer,  who 
on  Sunday  goes  to  church  with  his  family,  and  becomes 
apparently  thoroughly  rehgious,  but  on  Monday,  or  rather 
as  soon  as  his  store  suit  is  off,  he  believes  in  the  survival  of 
the  fittest,  and  does  not  scruple  to  stick  a  man  with  a  broken- 
down  horse  or  if  need  be  to  sell  wooden  nutmegs.  12.  But 
the  government  which  has  protected  us  so  far,  which  has 
guarded  our  interests,  encouraged  our  endeavors,  avenged 
our  wrongs,  which  has  grown  and  grown  great  through  all 
the  changes  that  have  come  to  us  in  our  history  —  which 
to  be  sure  is  not  of  long  duration  but  still  has  lasted  for 
more  than  a  century  —  will  not  fail  us  now.  13*.  A  para- 
graph is  one  distinct  part  of  a  story  that  is  composed  of 


96  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vii 

one  or  more  sentences,  all  of  which  relate  to  the  general 
thought  treated  by  the  paragraph,  but  which  is  distinct  from 
the  thoughts  expressed  in  the  other  paragraphs  of  the  story, 

14.  The  elements  too  have  to  be  considered,  for  light 
objects  can  be  photographed  better  on  a  dull  day  than  they 
can  on  a  bright  day,  as  also  in  the  case  of  dark  objects  which 
take  a  better  picture  on  a  bright  day  than  on  a  dark  day. 

15.  The  engineers  wished  to  be  absolutely  sure  of  the  safety  of 
the  structures  they  designed,  and  since  there  were  few  physi- 
cal measurements  that  had  been  made  with  mathematical  ac- 
curacy, they,  calculating  the  strongest  possible  strains  that 
could  be  brought  to  bear  upon  their  structures  by  ordinary 
forces,  multiplied  the  result  by  six,  and  made  the  bridge  or 
building  strong  enough  to  bear  the  sixfold  load.  16.  Then 
the  piles  of  snow  and  ice,  littering  the  streets  uncared  for 
by  an  inefficient  force  of  street-cleaners  under  a  criminally 
negligent  Superintendent  of  Street-cleaning,  bred  the  germs 
and  spread  the  disease  which  has  become  so  prevalent  and 
distasteful  to  New  Yorkers  —  grippe.  1 7.  What  better 
could  be  done  for  those  weary  and  world- worn  spirits?  — 
for  him  whose  career  of  perpetual  action  was  impeded  and 
harassed  by  the  rarest  of  his  powers  and  the  richest  of  his 
acquirements?  —  for  another  who  had  thrown  his  ardent 
heart  from  earliest  youth  into  the  strife  of  politics,  and  now, 
perchance,  began  to  suspect  that  one  lifetime  'is  too  brief 
for  the  accomplisment  of  any  lofty  aim? — for  her  on  whose 
feminine  nature  had  been  imposed  the  heavy  gift  of  intel- 
lectual power,  such  as  a  strong  man  might  have  staggered 
under,  and  with  it  the  necessity  to  act  upon  the  world?  — 
in  a  word,  for  any  body,  than  to  throw  the  spell  of  a  tran- 
quil spirit  over  him?  18.  It  was  no  other  than  that  uni- 
versally accredited  character  so  constantly  referred  to  in  all 
seasons  of  intense  cold  or  heat ;  he  that  remembers  the  hot 
Sunday  and  the  cold  Friday  ;  the  witness  of  a  past  age  whose 


CHAP,  vii]  The  Sentence  97 

negative  reminiscences  find  their  way  into  every  newspaper, 
yet  whose  antiquated  and  dusky  abode  is  so  overshadowed 
by  accumulated  years  and  crowded  back  by  modern  edifices 
that  none  but  the  Man  of  Fancy  could  have  discovered  it, 
in  short,  that  twin  brother  of  Time  and  great-grand  sire  of 
Mankind,  and  hand-and-glove  associate  of  all  forgotten  men 
and  things  —  the  Oldest  Inhabitant.  19.  In  the  afternoon 
my  friend  asked  me  if  I  should  hke  to  take  a  walk ;  of 
course  I  was  delighted  with  the  proposal  and  we  had  soon 
started,  as  we  went  along  the  highway  I  was  surprised  to 
find  that  from  every  hedge  or  fence  there  were  two  or  three 
heads  peering  out  that  I  feared  had  evil  designs  upon  my 
friend  which  I  at  once  mentioned  to  him  but  he  did  not 
seem  to  be  very  much  concerned  about  his  safety.  20.  The 
tiny  income  that  was  gained  by  renting  one  of  the  unused 
apartments  to  a  daguerreotype  artist  who  had  lately  come 
to  town,  insufficient  as  it  was  to  meet  even  the  modest 
requirements  that  were  needed  by  such  a  simple  woman  as 
the  Miss  Hepzibah  that  we  have  seen,  had  to  be  increased 
by  the  opening  of  a  small  store. 

72.  The  Second  Essential:  A  Sentence  must  not  be 
too  Long.  —  In  order  to  impress  a  reader  favorably, 
a  sentence  must  not  be  too  long.  The  different 
effects  produced  by  long  and  by  short  sentences  will 
be  discussed  in  the  following  sections. 

73.  The  Good  Short  Sentence.  —  Short  sentences  are 
most  natural  and  effective  when  we  are  treating  a 
subject  simply  and  rapidly.  The  virtue  of  the  short 
sentence  is  that  it  gives  one's  writing  simplicity  and 
rapidity  of  movement,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  first 
passage  quoted  in  §  70. 


93  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vii 

74.  A  Series  of  Short  Sentences.  —  A  succession  of 
very  short  and  very  simple  sentences,  however,  has 
the  effect  of  a  passage  from  a  child's  primer.  The 
thought  seems  to  move  on  only  by  jerks  and  starts, 
and  the  reader  is  tantalized  by  getting  only  a  small 
part  of  an  idea  at  a  time.  Notice  the  effect  of  such 
a  succession  of  sentences  in  the  following  passage, 
taken  from  an  abridged  translation  of  Victor  Hugo's 
Ninety-  Three :  — 

"  They  lay  down  side  by  side  on  the  seaweed  bed.  The 
beggar  fell  asleep  immediately.  The  marquis,  although  very 
tired,  remained  thinking  deeply  for  a  few  moments.  To  lie 
on  that  bed  was  to  lie  on  the  ground.  He  could  hear  a 
strange  buzzing  underground.  We  know  that  sound  stretches 
down  into  the  depths  ;  he  could  hear  the  noise  of  bells.  The 
tocsin  was  still  sounding.  The  marquis  fell  asleep.  It  was 
daylight  when  he  awoke.  The  beggar  was  standing  up  — 
not  in  the  den — but  without,  on  the  sill.  The  sun  shone 
upon  his  face.  He  indicated  a  point  in  the  horizon.  *  I  am 
going  that  way.'  He  pointed  in  the  opposite  direction. 
*  Go  you  this  way.'  A  moment  after,  he  disappeared  among 
the  trees.  The  marquis  arose  and  departed  in  the  direction 
which  he  had  indicated. 

"  It  was  that  charming  hour  called  in  the  old  Norman 
peasant  dialect  *  the  song-sparrow  of  the  day.'  The  finches 
and  the  hedge-sparrows  flew  chirping  about.  The  marquis 
passed  out  of  the  thicket  and  found  himself  at  the  fork  of 
the  road,  marked  by  the  stone  cross.  The  placard  was  still 
there.  He  remembered  that  there  was  something  at  the 
bottom  which  he  had  not  been  able  to  read  the  evening 
before.  He  went  up  to  the  pedestal  of  the  cross.  Under 
the  signature  there  were  yet  two  other  lines  in  small  char- 
acters." 


CHAP,  vii]  The  Sentence  99 

75.  The  Good  Long  Sentence. — The  advantage  of 
the  long  sentence  is  that  by  it  we  are  able  to  state  in 
the  same  breath,  as  it  were,  or  at  least  in  the  same 
grammatical  unit,  a  complete  idea,  with  all  its  neces- 
sary modifications.  The  following  sentences,  for 
example,  although  considerably  longer  than  those 
which  one  would  usually  write,  would  have  distinctly 
lost  in  force  had  they  been  broken  up  into  shorter 
sentences :  — 

(a)  "  On  this  question  of  principle,  while  actual  suffering 
was  yet  far  off,  they  raised  their  flag  against  a  power,  to 
which,  for  purposes  of  foreign  conquest  and  subjugation, 
Rome,  in  the  height  of  her  glory,  is  not  to  be  compared,  — 
a  power  which  has  dotted  over  the  surface  of  the  whole  globe 
with  her  possessions  and  military  posts,  whose  morning  drum- 
beat, following  the  sun,  and  keeping  company  with  the  hours, 
circles  the  earth  with  one  continuous  and  unbroken  strain  of 
the  martial  airs  of  England." 

—  Daniel  Webster  :    The  Presidential  Protest. 

{b)  "Let  their  last  feeble  and  lingering  glance  rather 
behold  the  gorgeous  ensign  of  the  republic,  now  known  and 
honored  throughout  the  earth,  still  full  high  advanced,  its 
arms  and  trophies  streaming  in  their  original  lustre,  not  ^ 
stripe  erased  or  polluted,  nor  a  single  star  obscured,  bearing 
for  its  motto,  no  such  miserable  interrogatory  as  *  What  is 
all  this  worth  ?  *  nor  those  other  words  of  delusion  and  folly, 
*  Liberty  first  and  Union  afterwarcjj^ ;  but  everywhe;^ 
spread  all  over  in  characters  of  living  light,  blazing  on  all 
its  ample  folds,  as  they  float  over  the  sea  and  over  the  land, 
and  in  every  wind  under  the  whole  heavens,  that  other 
sentiment,  dear  to  every  true  American  heart,  Liberty  and 
Union,  now  and  for  ever,  one  and  inseparable  !  " 

—  Daniel  Webster  :   Second  Speech  on  Footers  Resolution. 


lOO  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vii 

76.  The  Bad  Long  Sentence.  —  Unless,  however, 
one's  hand  is  skilful,  the  long  sentence  is  likely 
either  to  be  obscure  or  to  impress  the  reader  with 
its  length  and  intricacy.  The  following  quaint  sen- 
tence from  Cotton  Mather's  Magnalia  (1702),  for 
example,  would  nowadays  be  broken  up  into  several 
sentences :  — 

"  In  June  next  ensuing,  a  great  thunder-storm  arose  out 
of  the  northwest ;  after  which  (the  hemisphere  being  serene), 
about  an  hour  before  sunset  a  ship  of  like  dimensions  with 
the  aforesaid,  with  her  canvas  and  colors  abroad  (though 
the  wind  [was]  northernly),  appeared  in  the  air  coming  up 
from  our  harbor's  mouth,  which  lies  southward  from  the  town, 
seemingly  with  her  sails  filled  under  a  fresh  gale,  holding 
her  course  north,  and  continuing  under  observation,  sailing 
against  the  wind,  for  the  space  of  half  an  hour." 

77.  Rule  as  to  the  Length  of  Sentences.  —  In  general, 
the  long  sentence  should  be  used  with  great  modera- 
tion. Often  unnecessarily  complicated,  it  over- 
strains the  attention  of  the  reader,  who  at  the  end 
of  the  sentence  can  sometimes  scarcely  remember 
what  the  beginning  was.  The  inexperienced  writer 
will  profit  by  observing  the  following  rule :  — 

Unless  for  very  good  reasons,  do  not  allow  a  sentence  to 
exceed  thirty  words. 

EXERCISE  31 

I.  Write  a  composition  of  about  ten  sentences,  in 
which  most  of  the  sentences  shall  not  contain  more 
than  twenty  words,  but  in  which  one  sentence  shall 
be  considerably  longer. 


CHAP,  vii]  The  Sentence 

II.  Break  up  each  of  the  following  long  sentences 
into  two  or  more  short  sentences :  — 

I.  The  weather  has  to-day  the  feeling  of  early  spring, 
while  only  last  Wednesday  it  was  clear  and  crisp,  a  typical 
winter  day^^he  sky  was  clear,  a  good  brisk  breeze  was 
blowing,  and  everywhere  there  were  signs  of  hurrying 
bundles  of  humanity,  to-day  there  seems  to  be  little  Hfe  in 
the  air,  the  sky  is  clouded  over,  and  people  go  about  their 
work  in  a  half-listless,  languid  fashion.  2.  This  kind  of 
weather  takes  people  unprepared  for  they  dare  not  change 
their  weight  of  clothing  and  thus  they  go  about  feeling 
uncomfortable  all  day,  food  is  liable  to  spoil  because  mer- 
chants and  buyers  are  not  prepared,  disease  germs  are  bred 
in  such  weather,  and  we  see  what  trouble  and  inconvenience 
one  bad  day  will  put  a  whole  city  to.  3.  If  you  take  about 
twenty  pieces  of  zinc  and  place  them  in  the  pickle-bottle 
and  cover  them  with  the  acid,  putting  the  cork  in  snugly, 
bubbles  of  gas,  driving  out  the  water  which  was  already  in 
the  flask,  will  soon  fill  the  bottle  in  the  basin.  4.  If  he 
should  ever  be  upon  the  water  and  through  some  accident 
or  carelessness  be  thrown  into  the  water,  unless  he  had  near 
at  hand  a  friend  that  could  swim,  his  life  would  not  be  worth 
much ;  and  his  friend,  if  he  could  not  swim,  would  have  the 
sorrow  of  seeing  him  drown,  and  would  then  wish  for  a 
knowledge  of  the  art  of  swimming.  5.  Good  influence, 
right  thought,  true  feeling,  would  seem  almost  of  necessity 
to  be  obliged  to  lie  in  pools  here  and  there  upon  the  great 
expanse  of  human  life,  wherever  they  found  the  most  sen- 
sitive and  susceptible  minds ;  great  districts  of  humanity 
being  totally  unreached,  instead  of  the  great  broad  fields 
being  watered  through  and  through.  6.  After  that  I  had 
accompKshed  and  finished  divers  histories,  as  well  of  con- 
templation as  of  other  historical  and  worldly  acts  of  great 
conquerors  and  princes,  and  also  certain  books  of  ensamples 


I02  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vii 

and  doctrine,  many  noble  and  divers  gentlemen  of  this 
realm  of  England  came  and  demanded  wherefore  that  I 
have  not  made  and  imprinted  the  noble  history  of  the 
Saint  Greal,  and  of  the  most  renowned  Christian  king,  first 
and  chief  of  the  three  best  Christian  kings,  King  Arthur, 
which  ought  most  to  be  remembered  amongst  us  English- 
men before  all  other  Christian  kings ;  for  it  is  notoriously 
known  through  the  universal  world,  that  there  be  nine 
worthy  and  the  best  that  ever  were,  that  is  to  wit  three 
Paynims,  three  Jews,  and  three  Christain  men.  7.  The 
said  noble  gentlemen  instantly  required  me  to  imprint  the 
history  of  the  said  noble  king  and  conqueror  King  Arthur, 
and  of  his  knights,  with  the  history  of  the  Saint  Greal,  and 
of  the  death  and  ending  of  the  said  Arthur ;  affirming  that 
I  ought  rather  to  imprint  his  acts  and  noble  feats  than  of 
Godfrey  of  Boloine  or  any  of  the  other  eight,  considering 
that  he  was  a  man  born  within  this  realm,  and  king  and 
emperor  of  the  same ;  and  that  there  be  in  French  divers 
and  many  noble  volumes  of  his  acts,  and  also  of  his  knights. 
8.  It  was  a  great  pleasure  to  receive  your  letter,  I  have  just 
read  it  over  again  for  I  had  forgotten  the  name  of  the  people 
you  met  at  that  luncheon,  but  now  as  I  think  of  it  again, 
I  believe  they  are  the  very  same  family  I  met  two  winters 
ago  at  Lake  wood  when  I  was  there  so  long.  9.  Miss  Toosey 
used  to  sit  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  church  in  a  pew 
which  had  been  rented  by  her  for  many  years,  and  which 
being  directly  in  front  of  the  church-wardens'  seat,  where 
these  two  officials  sat,  was  within  easy  reach  of  their  long 
tithing-rods,  though  Miss  Toosey  was  far  from  dreading 
any  touch  of  them.  10.  For  the  rest,  respecting  religions, 
governments,  sciences,  arts,  you  will  find  that  on  the  whole 
you  can  know  nothing,  judge  nothing ;  that  the  best  you 
can  do,  even  though  you  may  be  a  well-educated  person, 
is   to   be   silent  and  strive  to  be  wiser  every  day,  and  to 


CHAP,  vii]  The  Sentence  103 

understand  a  little  more  of  the  thoughts  of  others,  which 
so  soon  as  you  try  to  do  honestly  you  will  discover  that  the 
thoughts  even  of  the  wisest  are  very  Httle  more  than  perti- 
nent questions.  1 1 .  Ruskin  says  that  a  newspaper  may  be 
proper  at  breakfast  time,  but  it  is  not  reading  for  the  whole 
day,  and,  though  bound  up  in  a  volume,  a  book  which  gives 
such  a  pleasant  account  of  the  inns  and  roads  and  weather 
last  year  at  such  a  place  or  gives  the  real  circumstances  of 
certain  events,  however  valuable  for  occasional  reference, 
may  not  be  in  the  real  sense  of  the  word  a  "  book"  at  all, 
for  a  book  is  not  a  talked  thing  but  a  written  thing  and 
written  with  a  view  of  permanence.  12.  We  drove  first  to 
Daytona  along  a  beautiful  river-road  —  we  thought  that  was 
rather  nice  but  the  climax  was  reached  when  we  crossed  the 
HaHfax  and  came  home  on  the  beach,  which  was  a  most 
wonderful  sight,  the  moonlight  streaming  down,  the  ocean 
roaring,  on  one  side  within  a  few  feet  of  us  and  high  sand- 
banks on  the  other.  13.  We  have  had  one  lesson  in  bicycle 
riding  and  expect  to  try  again  next  week,  didn't  make 
much  of  a  success  of  it  and  really  don't  care  about  learning, 
as  we  wouldn't  care  for  it  north,  but  every  one  rides  here, 
the  roads  seem  specially  made  for  it,  and  we  are  advised  on 
all  sides  to  learn.  14.  My  next  and  last  example  shall  be 
that  under-valuer  of  money,  the  late  Provost  of  Eton  College, 
Sir  Henry  Walton  —  a  man  with  whom  I  have  often  fished 
and  conversed,  a  man  whose  foreign  employments  in  the 
service  of  this  nation,  and  whose  experience,  learning,  wit, 
and  cheerfulness  made  his  company  to  be  esteemed  one 
of  the  delights  of  mankind ;  this  man,  whose  very  approba- 
tion of  angling  were  sufficient  to  convince  any  modest 
censurer  of  it,  this  man  was  also  a  most  dear  lover  and  a 
frequent  practicer  of  the  art  of  angling ;  of  which  he  would 
say,  "  'Twas  an  employment  for  his  idle  time,  which  was 
then  not  idly  spent ;  for  angling  was,  after  tedious  study, 


104  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vii 

a  rest  to  his  mind,  a  cheerer  of  his  spirits,  a  diverter  of  sad- 
ness, a  calmer  of  unquiet  thoughts." 

78.  The  Effective  Use  of  Short  and  Long  Sentences  in 
Combination.  —  It  is  often  wise  to  follow  up  and  com- 
plete short  pithy  sentences  of  statement  or  assertion 
with  longer  sentences  of  explanation,  illustration,  or 
limitation,  and  to  sum  up  a  long  sentence  or  a  series 
of  long  sentences  in  one  or  two  short  sentences. 
Notice  how  skilfully  this  is  done  in  the  following 
extracts  from  Macaulay's  Essay  on  Hampden  :  — 

(a)  "  We  have  read  this  book  with  great  pleasure,  though 
not  exactly  with  that  kind  of  pleasure  which  we  had  expected. 
We  had  hoped  that  Lord  Nugent  would  have  been  able  to 
collect,  from  family  papers  and  local  traditions,  much  new 
and  interesting  information  respecting  the  life  and  character 
of  the  renowned  leader  of  the  Long  Parliament,  the  first  of 
those  great  English  commoners  whose  plain  addition  of 
Mister  has,  to  our  ears,  a  more  majestic  sound  than  the 
proudest  of  feudal  titles.  In  this  hope  we  have  been  dis- 
appointed ;  but  assuredly  not  from  any  want  of  zeal  or 
diligence  on  the  part  of  the  noble  biographer." 

{d)  "  Hampden  determined  to  leave  England.  Beyond 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  a  few  of  the  persecuted  Puritans  had 
formed,  in  the  wilderness  of  Connecticut,  a  settlement  which 
has  since  become  a  prosperous  commonwealth,  and  which, 
in  spite  of  the  lapse  of  time  and  of  the  change  of  govern- 
ment, still  retains  something  of  the  character  given  to  it  by 
its  first  founders." 

{c)  "  The  tide  of  public  affairs  was  even  now  on  the  turn. 
The  king  had  resolved  to  change  the  ecclesiastical  constitu- 
tion of  Scotland,  and  to  introduce  into  the  public  worship 
of  that  kingdom  ceremonies  which  the  great  body  of  the 
Scotch  regarded  as  popish." 


CHAP,  vii]  The  Sentence  105 

(^)  "  Charles  had  now  a  last  chance  of  regaining  the 
affection  of  his  people.  If  he  could  have  resolved  to  give 
his  confidence  to  the  leaders  of  the  moderate  party  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  to  regulate  his  proceedings  by 
their  advice,  he  might  have  been,  not,  indeed,  as  he  had 
been,  a  despot,  but  the  powerful  and  respected  king  of  a 
free  people.  The  nation  might  have  enjoyed  liberty  and 
repose  under  a  government  with  Falkland  at  its  head, 
checked  by  a  constitutional  opposition  under  the  conduct 
of  Hampden.  It  was  not  necessary  that,  in  order  to 
accomplish  this  happy  end,  the  king  should  sacrifice  any 
part  of  his  lawful  prerogative,  or  submit  to  any  conditions 
inconsistent  with  his  dignity.  It  was  necessary  only  that  he 
should  abstain  from  treachery,  from  violence,  from  gross 
breaches  of  the  law.  This  was  all  that  the  nation  was  then 
disposed  to  require  of  him.     And  even  this  was  too  much." 

(<?)  "What  was  his  purpose  ?  Is  it  possible  to  believe 
that  he  had  no  definite  purpose,  that  he  took  the  most 
important  step  of  his  whole  reign  without  having  for  one 
moment  considered  what  might  be  its  effects  ?  Is  it  possible 
to  believe  that  he  went  merely  for  the  purpose  of  making 
himself  a  laughing-stock ;  that  he  intended,  if  he  had  found 
the  accused  members,  and  if  they  had  refused,  as  it  was 
their  right  and  duty  to  refuse,  the  submission  which  he 
illegally  demanded,  to  leave  the  House  without  bringing 
them  away  ?  If  we  reject  both  these  suppositions,  we  must 
believe,  and  we  certainly  do  believe,  that  he  went  fully 
determined  to  carry  his  unlawful  design  into  effect  by 
violence,  and,  if  necessary,  to  shed  the  blood  of  the  chiefs 
of  the  Opposition  on  the  very  floor  of  the  Parliament 
House." 

EXERCISE  32 

I.  Write  three  short  compositions  of  six  sentences 
each.      Let  the  first  begin  with  short  sentences  and 


io6  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vii 

close  with  a  long  sentence.  Let  the  second  begin 
with  a  comparatively  long  sentence  and  close  with 
short  sentences.  Let  the  third  combine  long  and 
short  sentences  in  whatever  way  the  writer  pleases. 
IL  Find  in  your  reading  several  examples  to 
illustrate  the  principle  stated  in  the  preceding 
section. 

79.  The  Third  Essential:  the  Form  of  the  Sentence 
should  often  Stimulate  the  Reader.  —  Loose  structure 
tends  to  fatigue  the  mind ;  periodic  structure  tends 
to  stimulate  the  mind.  On  the  student's  knowledge 
of  this  principle,  and  on  his  skill  in  applying  it, 
depends  to  a  great  degree  his  success  in  writing 
forcible  English. 

80.  The  Periodic  Sentence  and  the  Loose  Sentence : 
Definitions.  —  In  a  periodic  sentence  the  grammatical 
structure  is  not  complete  until  at  the  very  end.  This 
is  equivalent  to  saying  that  a  periodic  sentence  does 
not  make  sense  until  the  last  word  is  reached.  In  a 
loose  sentence  there  is  at  least  one  place  before  the 
end  where  the  grammatical  structure  is  complete. 
Examples :  — 

{a)  "A  perfectly  healthy  sentence,  it  is  true,  is  extremely 
rare."  [Periodic:  sentence  is  the  subject;  is  is  the  verb. 
As  the  verb  is  one  of  incomplete  predication,  and  requires 
rare  to  complete  the  construction,  the  grammatical  structure 
is  concluded  only  with  the  last  word  of  the  sentence.] 

{b)  "  For  the  most  part  we  miss  the  hue  and  fragrance 
of  the  thought ;  as  if  we  could  be  satisfied  with  the  dews  of 
the  morning  or  evening  without  their  colors,  or  the  heavens 
without  their  azure."     [Loose  :   we  is  the  subject,  miss  the 


•m 


CHAP,  vii]  The  Sentence  107 

verb,  and  hue  the  object.    With  hue  the  grammatical  struc- 
ture of  the  sentence  is  complete.] 

(<;)  "  There,  too,  hung  a  tattered  and  shrivelled  roll  |  ^ 
of  canvas,  which  on  inspection  proved  to  be  the  forcibly 
wrought  picture  of  a  clergyman,  in  wig,  band,  and  gown, 
holding  a  Bible  in  his  han'd."  [Loose :  the  grammatical 
structure  is  completed  by  roll.  The  sentence  could  be 
brought  to  a  stop  at  that  point  and  still  make  a  complete 
statement.] 

{li)  "  The  original  had  been  pastor  |  of  the  parish  more 
than  a  century  ago,  a  friend  of  Whitefield,  and  almost  his 
equal  in  fervid  eloquence."  [Loose  :  pastor  completes  the 
grammatical  structure,  though  the  phrase  of  the  parish  may 
be  considered  as  necessary  to  the  sense.  In  that  case  the 
sentence  is  loose  after  parish.'] 

(<f)  "  The  beams  and  rafters,  roughly  hewn,  and  with 
strips  of  bark  still  on  them,  and  the  rude  masonry  of  the 
chimneys,  made  the  garret  look  wild  |  and  uncivilized  — 
an  aspect  unlike  what  was  seen  elsewhere  in  the  quiet 
and  decorous  old  house."  [Loose  :  wild  completes  the 
grammatical  structure.] 

(/)  "  How  gently,  toQ$  did  the  sight  of  the  Old  Manse, 
best  seen  from  the  river,  overshadowed  with  its  willow  and 
all  environed  about  with  the  foliage  of  its  orchard  and 
avenue,  —  how  gently  did  its  gray,  homely  aspect  rebuke 
the  speculative  extravagances  of  the  day."  [Periodic :  the  ' 
grammatical  structure  closes  with  extravagances,  but  the 
final  phrase  is  virtually  indispensable  to  the  sense.] 

{g)  "Under  an  absolute  despotism,  such  as  that  of  the 
Sultan  of  Morocco  or  the  Khalifa  of  the  Sudan,  under  which 
all  property  is  held  only  at  the  will  of  the  ruler,  and  every 
distinction   or   pubHc    station    proceeds   solely    from   him, 

^  In  these  and  other  examples  of  sentence-structure,  we  shall  use  a 
vertical  line  to  indicate  the  spot  at  which  a  sentence  becomes  loose. 


io8 


Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vii 


and  may  be  at  any  moment  withdrawn  by  him,  a  kind  of 
equahty  may  exist  among  all  the  subjects  of  the  despot." 
[Periodic] 


EXERCISE  33 


In  the  passage  quoted  on  pages  124-126,  which  sentences 
are  loose  and  which  periodic  ? 


81.    How  to  make  a  Loose  Sentence  Periodic. — The 

following  examples  will  show  how  simple  a  matter  it 
usually  is  to  make  a  loose  sentence  periodic :  — 


•         Loose 

He  had  an  unusually  happy 
life,  in  spite  of  some  grievous 
disappointments  and  bereave- 
ments. 

He  had  taught  himself  how 
to  be  idle  elegantly,  but  he 
had  never  planned  how  to 
earn  his  own  hving. 

I  closed  the  door  behind 
me  softly  and  sped  swiftly 
down  the  street. 

Still,  he  pressed  forward, 
waving  his  sword  and  cheer- 
ing his  soldiers  to  the  attack, 
but  a  third  shot  lodged  deep 
within  his  breast. 

Abandon  your  plan  or 
comply  with   my  wishes. 

The  soldier  was  brave  and 
he  was  discreet. 


Periodic 

In  spite  of  some  grievous 
disappointments  and  bereave- 
ments, he  had  an  unusually 
happy  life. 

Though  he  had  taught  him- 
self how  to  be  idle  elegantly, 
he  had  never  planned  how 
to  earn  his  own  living. 

Closing  the  door  behind 
me  softly,  I  sped  swiftly 
down  the  street. 

As  he  still  pressed  forward, 
waving  his  sword  and  cheer- 
ing his  soldiers  to  the  attack, 
a  third  shot  lodged  deep 
within  his  breast. 

Either  abandon  your  plan 
or  comply  with  my  wishes. 

The  soldier  was  not  only 
brave  but  discreet. 


CHAP,  vii]  The  Sentence  109 

EXERCISE  34 

I.  Change  the  following  loose  sentences  into 
periodic  sentences,  taking  such  slight  liberties  with 
the  sense  as  is  necessary  for  that  purpose  :  — 

I.  After  the  second  night  at  Goliad,  Benjamin  and  I 
started  to  make  the  remainder  of  the  journey  alone.  2.  We 
reached  Corpus  Christi  just  in  time  to  avoid  "absence 
without  leave."  3.  We  met  no  one  —  not  even  an  Indian 
—  during  the  remainder  of  our  journey,  except  at  San 
Patricio.  4.  A  new  settlement  had  been  started  there  in 
our  absence  of  three  weeks,  induced  possibly  by  the  fact 
that  there  were  houses  already  built,  while  the  proximity  of 
troops  gave  protection  against  the  Indians.  5.  On  the 
evening  of  the  first  day  out  from  Goliad  we  heard  the  most 
unearthly  howHng  of  wolves,  directly  in  our  front.  6.  The 
prairie  grass  was  tall  and  we  could  not  see  the  beasts,  but 
the  sound  indicated  that  they  were  near.  7.  To  my  ear  it 
appeared  that  there  must  have  been  enough  to  devour  our 
party,  horses  and  all,  at  a  single  meal.  8.  The  part  of  Ohio 
that  I  hailed  from  was  not  thickly  settled,  but  wolves  had 
been  driven  out  long  before  I  left.  9.  Benjamin  was  from 
Indiana,  still  less  populated,  where  the  wolf  yet  roamed  over 
the  prairies.  10.  He  understood  the  nature  of  the  animal 
and  the  capacity  of  a  few  to  make  believe  there  was  an 
unUmited  number  of  them.  11.  He  kept  on  towards  the 
noise,  unmoved.  12.  I  followed  in  his  trail,  lacking  moral 
courage  to  turn  back  and  join  our  sick  companion.  13.  If 
Benjamin  had  proposed  returning  to  Goliad,  I  should  not 
only  have  "  seconded  the  motion  "  but  have  suggested  that 
it  was  very  hard-hearted  in  us  to  leave  Augur  sick  there  in 
the  first  place  ;  but  Benjamin  did  not  propose  turning  back. 
14.  Finally  he  did  speak,  and  asked  me :  "  Grant,  how 
many  wolves    do   you    think   there   are   in    that   pack?" 


no  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vii 

15.  I  knew  where  he  was  from,  and  suspected  that  he 
thought  I  should  overestimate  the  number.  16.  I  de- 
termined to  show  my  acquaintance  with  the  animal  by 
putting  the  estimate  below  what  possibly  could  be  correct, 
and  answered:  "Oh,  about  twenty,"  very  indifferently. 
17.  He  smiled  and  rode  on.  18.  In  a  minute  we  were 
close  upon  them,  and  before  they  saw  us.  19.  There  were 
just  two  of  them  after  all.  20.  They  were  seated  upon 
their  haunches,  with  their  mouths  close  together,  and  they 
had  made  all  the  noise  we  had  been  hearing  for  the  past 
ten  minutes.  21.  I  have  often  thought  of  this  incident 
since,  when  I  have  heard  the  noise  of  a  few  disappointed 
poHticians  who  had  deserted  their  associates.  22.  There 
are  always  more  of  them  before  they  are  counted. 

II.  Change  the  following  periodic  sentences  into 
loose  sentences :  — 

I.  When  we  consider  the  magnitude  of  the  prize  we 
contended  for,  the  doubtful  nature  of  the  contest,  and  the 
favorable  manner  in  which  it  has  terminated,  we  shall  find 
the  greatest  possible  reason  for  gratitude  and  rejoicing. 
2.  The  citizens  of  America,  placed  in  the  most  enviable 
condition,  as  the  sole  lords  and  proprietors  of  a  vast  tract 
of  continent,  comprehending  all  the  various  soils  and  cli- 
mates of  the  world,  and  abounding  with  all  the  necessaries 
and  conveniences  of  life,  are  now,  by  the  late  satisfactory 
pacification,  acknowledged  to  be  possessed  of  absolute  free- 
dom and  independency.  3.  Whichever  statement  we  re- 
ceive, the  sum,  combined  with  that  obtained  at  Caxamalca, 
might  well  have  satisfied  the  cravings  of  the  most  avaricious. 
4.  The  sudden  influx  of  so  much  wealth,  and  that,  too,  in 
so  transferable  a  form,  among  a  party  of  reckless  adventurers 
little  accustomed  to  the  possession  of  money,  had  its  natural 
effect. 


CHAP,  vii]  The  Sentence  1 1 1 

82.  The  Good  Periodic  Sentence.  —  The  advantage 
of  the  periodic  sentence  is  that  its  essential  charac- 
teristic —  the  suspension  of  the  sense  —  serves  to 
excite  the  attention  and  interest  of  the  reader.  For 
this  purpose,  it  is  enough  that  the  structure  be 
periodic,  whether  the  sentence  itself  be  long  or  short. 
Examples :  — 

{a)  "The  eloquent  voice,  on  which  the  souls  of  the 
listening  audience  had  been  borne  aloft  as  on  the  swelling 
waves  of  the  sea,  at  length  came  to  a  pause." 

—  Hawthorne  :   l^he  Scarlet  Letter. 

(J?)  "  When  in  the  course  of  human  events  it  becomes 
necessary  for  one  people  to  dissolve  the  poHtical  bands 
which  have  connected  them  with  another  and  to  assume 
among  the  powers  of  the  earth  the  separate  and  equal 
station  to  which  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nature's  God 
entitle  them,  a  decent  respect  to  the  opinions  of  mankind 
requires  that  they  should  declare  the  causes  which  impel 
them  to  the  separation." 

—  Jefferson  :   Declaration  of  Independence. 

(^)  "  Every  one  has  heard  the  story  which  has  gone  the 
rounds  of  New  England,  of  a  strong  and  beautiful  bug  which 
came  out  of  the  dry  leaf  of  an  old  table  of  apple-tree  wood, 
which  had  stood  in  a  farmer's  kitchen  for  sixty  years,  first  in 
Connecticut,  and  afterward  in  Massachusetts,  —  from  an 
^gg  deposited  in  the  living  tree  many  years  earlier  still,  as 
appeared  by  counting  the  annual  layers  beyond  it ;  which 
was  heard  gnawing  out  for  several  weeks,  hatched  perchance 
by  the  heat  of  an  urn.^  Who  does  not  feel  his  faith  in  a 
resurrection   and   immortality  strengthened   by   hearing  of 

^  This  sentence  and  the  following  are  loose  and  are  here  quoted 
only  to  make  clear  the  thought  of  the  third  sentence. 


112  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vii 

this  ?  Who  knows  what  beautiful  and  winged  life,  whose 
egg  has  been  buried  for  ages  under  many  concentric  layers 
of  woodenness  in  the  dead  dry  Kfe  of  society,  deposited  at 
first  in  the  alburnum  of  the  green  and  living  tree,  which  has 
been  gradually  converted  into  the  semblance  of  its  well- 
seasoned  tomb,  —  heard  perchance  gnawing  out  now  for 
years  by  the  astonished  family  of  man,  as  they  sat  round 
the  festive  board,  —  may  unexpectedly  come  forth  from 
amidst   society's   most  trivial  and  handselled  furniture,   to 

enjoy  its  perfect  summer  Hfe  at  last  ! " 

—  Thork\u  :    IValden. 

,  {d)  *^And,  O  my  brethren,  O  kind  and  affectionate 
hearts,  O  loving  friends,  should  you  know  any  one  whose 
lot  it  has  been,  by  writing  or  by  word  of  mouth,  in  some 
degree  to  help  you  thus  to  act ;  if  he  has  ever  told  you 
what  you  knew  about  yourselves,  or  what  you  did  not  know ; 
has  read  to  you  your  wants  or  feelings,  and  comforted  you 
by  the  very  reading ;  has  made  you  feel  that  there  was  a 
higher  life  than  this  daily  one,  and  a  brighter  world  than 
that  you  see  ;  or  encouraged  you,  or  sobered  you,  or  opened 
a  way  to  the  inquiring,  or  soothed  the  perplexed  ;  if  what  he 
has  said  or  done  has  ever  made  you  take  interest  in  him, 
and  feel  well  inclined  towards  him ;  remember  such  a  one 
in  time  to  come,  though  you  hear  him  not,  and  pray  for 
him,  that  in  all  things  he  may  know  God's  will,  and  at  all 
times  he  may  be  ready  to  fulfil  it." 

—  Newman  :    The  Parting  of  Friends. 

EXERCISE  35 

Write  a  composition  of  five  sentences  which  shall  each 
be  at  least  twenty  words  in  length  and  periodic  in  structure. 

83.    The  Bad  Periodic  Sentence.  —  The  long  periodic 
sentence  is  inappropriate  when  it  is  obscure  or  merely 


CHAP,  vii]  The  Sentence  1 13 

produces  a  pompous  effect.  In  {a\  for  example,  the 
grammatical  construction  is  so  long  held  in  suspense 
that  the  reader  has  difficulty  in  grasping  the  sense. 
In  {b)  the  words  so  long  reserved  for  the  climax  are 
unworthy  of  their  place,  and  are  laughable  rather 
than  impressive. 

{a)  "  Much  as  a  story  which,  passing  from  mouth  to 
mouth,  and  securing  a  slight  exaggeration  at  each  repeti- 
tion, comes  round  to  the  original  narrator  in  a  form  scarcely 
to  be  recognized ;  so,  by  a  Httle  improper  influence  on  the 
part  of  the  land-owners,  a  little  favoritism  on  the  part  of 
members  of  Parliament,  a  Httle  intriguing  of  lawyers,  a  little 
manoeuvring  by  contractors  and  engineers,  a  little  self-seek- 
ing on  the  part  of  directors,  a  little  understatement  of  esti- 
mates and  overstatement  of  traffic,  a  little  magnifying  of 
the  evils  to  be  avoided  and  the  benefits  to  be  gained,  it 
happens  that  shareholders  are  betrayed  into  ruinous  under- 
takings by  grossly  untrue  representations,  without  any  one 
being  guilty  of  more  than  a  small  portion  of  the  fraud." 

(^)  ''Through  great,  low-lying  fields  of  golden  grain,  over 
which  the  evening  breezes  swept  with  impetuous,  light  feet, 
blending  the  radiant  yellow  of  the  corn  and  the  bright  blood- 
red  of  the  poppies  in  a  glorious  arabesque  of  gold  and 
green  and  scarlet,  past  dark-green  woods  and  gently  rising 
knolls  of  grassy  green,  away  round  moss-lichened  bowlders 
topped  by  dark-green  firs,  through  which  gleamed  the  red 
berry  of  the  rowan,  circling  round  towering  crags,  from 
whose  frowning  peaks  ivy-mantled  ruins  of  hoary  castles  stood 
out  bodily  against  the  glorious  autumn  sky,  the  river  stole." 

84.  The  Good  Loose  Sentence.  —  The  loose  sentence 
lacks  all  pomposity  of  structure  and  is  appropriate  in 
simple,  unaffected  writing,    especially   in   narrative. 


114  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vii 

The  thought  runs  along  easily  and  naturally.  The 
writer  makes  his  principal  statement  first,  instead  of 
reserving  it  for  the  end,  and  is  then  at  liberty  to 
expand,  define,  Umit,  or  illustrate  it  by  successive 
phrases  or  clauses.  The  following  illustrations  show 
how  well  adapted  the  loose  sentence  is  to  ordinary 
uses :  — 

I.  "  At  a  little  before  ten,  the  British  could  see  that  Mont- 
calm was  preparing  to  advance,  and,  in  a  few  moments,  all  his 
troops  appeared  in  rapid  motion.  2.  They  came  on  in  three 
divisions,  shouting  after  the  manner  of  their  nation,  and 
firing  heavily  as  soon  as  they  came  within  range.  3.  In  the 
British  ranks,  not  a  trigger  was  pulled,  not  a  soldier  stirred ; 
and  their  ominous  composure  seemed  to  damp  the  spirits 
of  the  assailants.  4.  It  was  not  till  the  French  were  within 
forty  yards  that  the  fatal  word  was  given,  and  the  British 
muskets  blazed  forth  at  once  in  one  crashing  explosion. 
5.  Like  a  ship  at  full  career,  arrested  with  sudden  ruin  on 
a  sunken  rock,  the  ranks  of  Montcalm  staggered,  shivered, 
and  broke  before  that  wasting  storm  of  lead.  6.  The  smoke, 
rolling  along  the  field,  for  a  moment  shut  out  the  view ;  but 
when  the  white  wreaths  were  scattered  on  the  wind,  a 
wretched  spectacle  was  disclosed  ;  men  and  officers  tumbled 
in  heaps,  battalions  resolved  into  a  mob,  order  and  obedi- 
ence gone  ;  and  when  the  British  muskets  were  levelled  for 
a  second  volley,  the  masses  of  the  militia  were  seen  to  cower 
and  shrink  with  uncontrollable  panic.  7.  For  a  few  minutes, 
the  French  regulars  stood  their  ground,  returning  a  sharp 
and  not  ineffectual  fire.  8.  But  now,  echoing  cheer  on 
cheer,  redoubling  volley  on  volley,  trampling  the  dying  and 
the  dead  and  driving  the  fugitives  in  crowds,  the  British 
troops  advanced  and  swept  the  field  before  them.  9.  The 
ardor  of  the  men  burst  all  restraint.     10.  They  broke  into 


CHAP,  vii]  The  Sentence  115 

a  run,  and  with  unsparing  slaughter  chased  the  flying  multi- 
tudes to  the  gates  of  Quebec,  it.  Foremost  of  all,  the 
■  light-footed  Highlanders  dashed  along  in  furious  pursuit,  hew- 
ing down  the  Frenchmen  with  their  broadswords,  and  slaying 
many  in  the  very  ditch  of  the  fortifications.  12.  Never  was 
victory  more  quick  or  more  decisive." 

—  Parkman  :    Conspiracy  of  Pontiac, 

^.  EXERCISE  36 

^^  I.  Mark  with  a  single  line  the  spots  at  which  the  sentences 
quoted  in  the  preceding  section  become  loose.  2.  Write  a 
speech  of  about  ten  sentences  in  length.  Be  careful  that 
each  sentence  rings  well,  —  that  it  satisfies  your  taste  as  you 
read  it  aloud.  3.  Mark  the  place  at  which  each  sentence 
in  your  theme  becomes  loose. 

85.  Suspension  of  Thought  even  in  the  Loose  Sen- 
tence.—  Even  in  the  loose  sentence,  how^ever,  the 
interest  is  often  stimulated  by  partly  periodic  struc- 
ture.    This  is  done  in  four  ways  :  — 

(i)  By  dividing  \h.^ phrases  that  modify  the  subject 
and  predicate  in  a  simple  sentence,  and  placing  one 
or  more  of  them  in  a  periodic  position.  Compare, 
for  instance,  the  two  forms  of  the  same  sentences 
given  in  (a)  and  {b)  below. 

(a)  I.  "  In  a  long  ramble  of  the  kind  on  a  fine  autumnal 
day.  Rip  had  unconsciously  scrambled  to  one  of  the  highest 
parts  of  the  Kaatskill  Mountains.  2.  Panting  and  fatigued, 
he  threw  himself,  late  in  the  afternoon,  on  a  green  knoll. 
3.  From  an  opening  between  the  trees  he  could  overlook 
all  the  lower  country  for  many  a  mile  of  rich  woodland." 

{b)  I.  Rip  had  unconsciously  scrambled  to  one  of  the 
highest  parts  of  the  Kaatskill  Mountains  in  a  long  ramble 


ii6  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vii 

of  the  kind  on  a  fine  autumnal  day.  2.  He  threw  himself, 
late  in  the  afternoon,  on  a  green  knoll,  panting  and  fatigued. 
3.  He  could  overlook  all  the  lower  country  for  many  a  mile 
of  rich  woodland  from  an  opening  between  the  trees. 

(2)  By  placing  one  or  more  clauses  in  a  periodic 
position,  allowing  other  phrases  or  clauses  to  follow 
the  principal  statement.  Notice,  for  instance,  the 
italicized  clauses  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 

I.  As  he  was  about  to  descend,  he  heard  a  voice  from 
a  distance,  holloing,  '*  Rip  Van  Winkle  !  Rip  Van  Winkle." 
2.  While  Governor  Manco,  or  **  the  one-armed^''  kept  up  a 
show  of  military  state  in  the  Alhambra,  he  became  nettled 
at  the  reproaches  continually  cast  upon  his  fortress,  of  being 
a  nestHng-place  of  rogues.  3.  When  within  a  few  yards 
of  the  cover,  he  fitted  an  arrow  to  the  bow  with  the  utmost 
care,  while  the  antlers  moved,  as  if  their  owner  had  snuffed 
an  enemy  in  the  tainted  air. 

(3)  By  inserting  parenthetical  phrases  or  clauses 
in  periodic  positions.  Compare  the  two  forms  of  the 
same  sentences  given  below  :  — 

I.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  in  the  beginning  we  aimed  not 
at  independence.  2.  The  war,  then,  must  go  on.  3.  Let 
me  not,  however,  lose  the  historian  in  the  man.  4.  These, 
I  say  to  myself,  are  but  frail  memorials  of  mighty  men. 
5.  Already,  as  I  observed  at  the  close  of  my  last  book,  they 
had  awakened  the  attention  of  the  mother-country. 

I.  It  is  true  that  in  the  beginning  we  aimed  not  at  inde- 
pendence, indeed.  2.  The  war  must  go  on,  then.  3.  Let 
me  not  lose  the  historian  in  the  man,  however.  4.  These 
are  but  frail  memorials  of  mighty  men,  I  say  to  myself. 
5.  Already  they  had  awakened  the  attention  of  the  mother- 
country,  as  I  observed  at  the  end  of  my  last  book. 


CHAP,  vii]  The  Sentence  117 

(4)  By  giving  a  periodic  form  to  one  or  more  of  the 
members  of  a  compound  sentence.  A  compound 
sentence  must  necessarily  be  loose,  but  its  members 
may  be  fully  or  partly  periodic.  In  the  following 
examples  the  periodic  part  of  each  member  is  printed 
in  italics :  — 

I.  Though  rather  shy  and  distrustful  of  this  new  aquaint- 
ance,  Rip  complied  with  his  usual  alacrity;  and  mutually 
relieving  one  another,  they  clambered  up  a  narroiv  gully, 
apparently  the  dry  bed  of  a  mountain  torrent.  2.  Banished, 
moreover,  by  the  pitiless  English  persecution,  the  Puritans, 
exiles  and  poor  in  a  /o?'eign  land,  a  colony  in  Holland  before 
they  were  a  colony  in  America,  were  compelled  to  self-govern- 
ment, to  a  common  sympathy  and  support,  to  bearing  one 
another's  burdens ;  and  so,  by  the  stern  experience  of  actual 
life,  they  were  trained  in  the  virtues  most  essential  for  the 
fulfilment  of  their  august  but  unimagined  destiny.  3.  Eaidy 
in  the  century  a  score  of  settle?nents  beyojid  the  Alleghanies 
bore  the  name  of  Salem,  the  spot  where  first  in  America  the 
Puritans  of  Massachusetts  Bay  set  foot ;  and  in  the  dawn  of 
the  Revolution  the  hunters  in  the  rejnote  valley  of  the  Elk- 
horn,  hearing  the  news  of  the  igth  of  April,  called  their  camp 
Lexington. 

EXERCISE  37 

I.  Find,  from  your  own  reading,  three  instances  of  the 
employment  of  each  of  the  four  methods  described  in  the 
preceding  section.  2.  Construct  five  other  instances  of 
the  employment  of  each  method.  3.  Write  a  composition 
of  about  ten  loose  sentences,  in  each  of  which  one  at  least 
of  the  methods  is  employed. 

86.  The  Bad  Loose  Sentence.  —  As  has  been  shown 
in  the  preceding  sections,  there  is  no  objection,  in" 


Ii8  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vii 

the  abstract,  to  the  use  of  the  loose  sentence.  As  a 
rule,  however,  it  is  at  its  best  when  it  is  not  entirely 
loose,  —  when  it  is  partly  periodic  in  its  structure. 
It  is  likely  to  be  at  its  worst  when  it  is  entirely  loose, 
—  when  the  grammatical  structure  is  completed  early 
in  the  sentence,  and  all  the  rest  is  a  mere  series  of 
complementary  phrases  and  clauses,  as  in  the  follow- 
ing example :  — 

I  saw  clearly  a  large  deer|,  who  was  feeding  quieUyj,  when 
he  was  disturbed  by  the  noise  of  a  twig|,  which  was  broken 
by  the  tread  of  my  friend|,  who  had  accompanied  me  against 
my  will  on  this  trip|,  which  was  the  last  I  could  make|,  for 
my  vacation  was  drawing  to  a  close. 

EXERCISE  38 

Reconstruct  the  following  loose  sentences:  — 

I.  Some  people  would  not  think  of  going  into  a  gymna- 
sium unless  they  were  compelled,  nor  would  they  exercise 
their  bodies,  preferring  to  stay  in  the  house  and  take  life 
easy.  2.  The  students  begin  to  study  about  October  first 
and  work  pretty  hard  till  Christmas,  when  comes  a  much 
needed  rest,  as  both  the  brain  and  the  eyes  have  become 
tired  by  that  time.  3.  Perhaps  he  might  have  chosen  to 
belong  to  that  school  without  a  master,  in  the  hope  of  being 
at  least  original,  since  there  were  no  works  of  art  to  imitate 
nor  rules  to  follow,  —  that  is,  if  he  could  have  revoked  his 
life  and  prearranged  his  destiny.  4.  Yesterday  the  sun  was 
as  bright  and  warm  as  any  one  could  wish,  for  the  sun  was 
out  bright  and  the  air  was  as  warm  as  early  spring,  in  fact 
it  reminded  one  of  spring  very  much,  inasmuch  as  the  walk- 
ing was  exceptionally  muddy,  the  frost  coming  out  of  the 
ground.     5.   It  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  pupils  to  have 


CHAP,  vii]  The  Sentence  119 

some  exercise  after  sitting  still  all  day,  in  order  to  preserve 
their  health,  for  is  not  health  the  basis  of  all  life  ?  6.  Of 
course  health  without  knowledge  would  make  a  man  help- 
less also,  so  the  combination  of  the  two,  health  and  knowl- 
edge, should  be  looked  to  in  the  schools  to  make  sure  that 
the  pupils  get  a  proper  amount  of  it.  7.  Two  old  ladies 
come  first,  arm  in  arm,  stooping  slightly,  walking  very  slowly, 
carrying  small  black  parasols.  8.  A  comparatively  young 
man  has  just  passed  escorting  an  old  lady,  evidently  mother 
and  son ;  a  pleasant  sight  to  see  a  man  strong  and  proud 
helping  his  mother  to  worship  in  her  old  'age  in  the  house 
of  God.  9.  Next  comes  along  a  widow,  by  her  dress  and 
careworn  face,  generally  near  the  last,  because  of  her  mani- 
fold duties  at  home ;  she  can  scarcely  spare  the  time. 
10.  And  so  they  come  until  the  walk  is  deserted  and  all  is 
quiet,  until,  even  at  this  distance,  I  hear  the  swell  of  the 
organ,  and  the  sound  of  the  singers  tells  me  that  the  service 
has  begun.  11.  When  Sunday  morning  comes  people 
usually  think  of  going  to  church  if  the  weather  is  good  and 
they  feel  like  it.  12.  They  walk  along  leisurely  to  their 
churches  and  go  in  one  by  one  at  first  until  the  service  is 
nearly  ready  to  begin  when  the  people  come  in  great  crowds 
to  church.  13.  On  the  ocean  we  have  those  huge,  swift, 
palatial  steamships,  an  outcome  of  the  old-fashioned  sailing 
vessels,  which  made  ocean  travel  tedious  and  a  dangerous 
undertaking,  so  that  comparatively  few  ever  ventured  to 
cross  the  sea.  14.  When  the  farm  came  into  Hank's  pos- 
session he  was  disheartened  at  finding  it  mortgaged,  think- 
ing he  would  never  be  able  to  raise  it,  so  he  did  not  work 
it  systematically,  consequently  the  profits  were  small,  but 
they  sufficed  for  his  wants,  so  he  was  contented.  15.  Now 
eject  all  air  from  the  tire,  inject  some  cement  by  means  of 
the  tool  accompanying  the  repair  kit,  draw  out  the  tool  and 
force  in  the  rubber  plug  shaped  like  a  mushroom,  head  first, 


I20  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vii 

by  means  of  a  pair  of  pincers  which  generally  accompany 
the  repair  kit. 

87.  Rule  as  to  the  Periodic  and  the  Loose  Sentence.  — 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  sum  up  the  results  of  our 
discussion  of  the  periodic  and  the  loose  sentence  in 
the  following  rule  :  — 

Give  force  to  your  sentences  by  making  a  large  proportion 
of  them  periodic,  either  as  a  whole  or  in  part. 

EXERCISE  39 

I.  Choose,  from  your  own  reading,  ten  sentences  which 
seem  to  you  particularly  well  made.  State  whether  each  is 
wholly  periodic,  partly  periodic,  or  wholly  loose.  2.  Write 
a  composition  of  about  ten  sentences,  paying  particular 
attention  to  their  form.  State,  at  the  end  of  the  compo- 
sition, whether  each  sentence  is  wholly  periodic,  partly 
periodic,  or  wholly  loose. 

88.  The  Fourth  Essential:  Parallel  Structure. — We 
have  seen  that  it  is  well  frequently  to  stimulate  the 
reader's  mind  by  the  use  of  the  periodic  form.  It 
is  also  well  to  make  the  reader's  task  easier  and  his 
pleasure  greater  by  expressing  similar  ideas  in  similar 
ways.  The  mind  naturally  expects  that  clauses  or 
phrases  which  are  parallel  in  thought  shall  be  par- 
allel in  form.  It  is  better  to  write  ''girls  that  whistle 
and  hens  that  crow,"  or  "  whistling  girls  and  crowing 
hens,"  than  **  girls  that  whistle  and  crowing  hens." 
The  kind  of  sentence-building  in  which  similar  ideas 
are  expressed  in  similar  forms  may  be  called  parallel, 
or  balanced  structure.     It  is  well  illustrated  in  the 


CHAP,  vii]  The  Sentence  I2I 

following  sentences,  in  which  the  beginning  of  each 
of  a  set  of  parallel  phrases  or  clauses  is  indicated  by 
the  same  number  :  — 

"If  ignorance  and  corruption  and  intrigue  (i)  control 
the  primary  meeting  and  (i)  manage  the  convention  and 
(i)  dictate  the  nomination,  the  fault  is  (2)  in  the  honest 
and  intelligent  workshop  and  office,  (2)  in  the  hbrary  and 
the  parlor,  (2)  in  the  church  and  the  school.  (3)  When 
these  are  as  constant  and  faithful  to  their  political  rights  as 
the  slums  and  the  grog-shops,  the  pool-rooms  and  the 
kennels ;  (3)  when  the  educated,  industrious,  temperate, 
thrifty  citizens  are  as  zealous  and  prompt  and  unfailing  in 
political  activity  as  the  ignorant  and  venal  and  mischievous, 
or  (3)  when  it  is  plain  that  they  cannot  be  roused  to  their 
duty,  then,  but  not  until  then  —  if  ignorance  and  corruption 
always  carry  the  day  —  there  can  be  no  honest  question 
that  the  republic  has  failed.  But  let  us  not  be  deceived. 
While  good  men  sit  at  home,  (4)  not  knowing  that  there 
is  anything  to  be  done,  nor  (4)  caring  to  know ;  (4)  culti- 
vating a  feeHng  that  politics  are  tiresome  and  dirty,  and 
politicians  vulgar  bullies  and  bravoes ;  (4)  half  persuaded 
that  a  republic  is  the  contemptible  rule  of  a  mob,  and  (4) 
secretly  longing  for  a  splendid  and  vigorous  despotism  — 
then  remember  (5)  it  is  not  a  government  mastered  by 
ignorance,  it  is  a  government  betrayed  by  intelligence ; 
(5)  it  is  not  the  victory  of  the  slums,  it  is  the  surrender  of 
the  schools;  (5)  it  is  not  that-bad  men  are  brave,  but  that 
good  men  are  infidels  and  cowards." 

—  G.  W.  Curtis  :    The  Public  Duty  of  Educated  Men. 

Sentences  like  those  just  quoted,  in  which  par- 
allel structure  predominates,  and  one  part  of  which 
is  balanced,  as  it  were,  against  another  part,  are 
frequently  called  balanced  sentences. 


122  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vii 

EXERCISE  40 

I.  Find,  from  your  own  reading,  five  sentences  in 
which  the  structure  is  noticeably  parallel. 

II.  Write  a  short  composition,  of  which  five  sen- 
tences shall  be  noticeably  parallel  in  structure. 

III.  In  the  following  sentences,  make  phrases  and 
clauses  that  are  parallel  in  thought  parallel  also  in 
form  :  — 

I.  The  physical  training  a  man  gets  in  this  as  in  football 
makes  him  strong,  and  teaches  him  perseverance,  stability, 
and  how  to  think  quickly.  2.  Automobiles  and  bicycles 
are  slowly  crowding  out  the  horse  and  carriage,  for  people 
find  them  less  trouble,  less  expensive,  and  of  much  greater 
speed.  3.  The  only  exercise  these  children  get  is  walking 
twice  a  day  the  few  short  blocks  to  school  and  the  games 
on  Saturdays  and  at  recess  time.  4.  A  few  years  ago  the 
cars  were  drawn  by  horses,  they  were  badly  lighted,  kero- 
sene-oil lamps  were  used,  poorly  heated  by  a  stove  in  the 
middle  of  the  car,  and  extremely  uncomfortable.  5.  The 
gymnasium  also  gives  a  marked  advantage  to  Columbia  and 
its  students,  since  the  physical  development  of  its  students 
is  increased,  their  intellectual  powers  are  bettered,  and  con- 
sequently their  progress  in  their  studies.  6.  After  the  mid- 
dle of  the  week,  the  terrible  strain  and  want  of  sleep  begin 
to  show  visible  effects  in  the  hallucinations  which  the  men 
have  and  by  their  crazy  actions  in  general.  7.  So  we  drove 
along,  on  one  side  the  ocean  roaring  within  a  few  feet  of  us, 
and  high  sandbanks  on  the  other.  8.  To  live  a  quiet  peas- 
ant girl  in  the  little  village  of  Domr^my,  to  find  herself  at 
the  head  of  victorious  legions,  marching  on  to  victory,  and 
then  death  at  the  stake,  —  this  was  the  history  of  Jeanne 
D'Arc.     9.  Hoping  to  finish  the  work  in  a  short  time  and 


CHAP,  vii]  The  Sentence  123 

also  that,  it  might  not  be  called  for,  he  put  off  writing  his 
theme  until  the  day  before  it  was  due.  10.  Much  space  is 
given  to  a  review  of  a  new  book  published  by  some  Western 
house  and  which  we  have  not  seen  mentioned  elsewhere. 
II.  After  all  is  it  not  strange  that  noble  and  moving  deeds 
make  so  little  permanent  impression  upon  us,  and  how 
quickly  we  really  forget  their  occurrence.  12.  The  sugges- 
tion has  been  made  that  it  is  practically  impossible  for  a 
man  to  prepare  eight  good  sermons  each  month,  and  let  him 
limit  himself  to  a  single  effort.  13.  The  nurse  moved  about 
the  room  swiftly,  without  noise,  and  deftly.  14.  Thinking 
that  he  should  find  Mary  at  the  house,  and  in  the  expecta- 
tion of  arranging  matters  satisfactorily,  George  strolled  in 
leisurely  fashion  up  the  street.  15.  One  of  the  girls  ran 
down  the  street,  called  "  Fire  !  "  as  she  passed  the  group  of 
loungers,  and  a  faint  puff  of  smoke  was  seen  rising  from  the 
schoolhouse. 

89.  Rule  as  to  Parallel  Structure.  —  We  may  now 

add  another  rule  to  our  list :  — 

Add  to  the  clearness  and  force  of  your  sentences  by  making 
frequent  use  of  parallel  structure. 

90.  The  Value  of  Imitation.  —  We  have  now  care- 
fully explained  several  methods  by  which  sentences 
may  be  made  clear  and  effective.  The  pupil  who 
has  mastered  the  theory  of  these  methods  will  be 
greatly  helped  in  this  fundamental  element  of  his 
composition  work.  He  will  also  be  greatly  helped  by 
reading  over  and  over  again  a  pleasing  passage  from 
a  good  writer,  getting  in  his  mind  the  sound  and 
rhythm  of  the  sentences,  and  then  trying  to  imitate, 
in  a  general  way,  that  sound  and  that  rhythm. 


124  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vn 

EXERCISE  41 

Read  aloud,  several  times,  the  following  narrative 
of  Braddock's  defeat,  then  write,  (i)  a  composition  of 
about  ten  sentences  on  the  march,  (2)  one  on  the  am- 
buscade, (3)  one  on  the  defeat.  Do  not  hesitate  to 
use  Parkman's  words  or  phrases,  from  time  to  time, 
in  the  first  composition,  if  necessary.  In  the  second 
and  third  compositions  use  your  own  words  to  a 
greater  extent.  Try  to  make  all  your  sentences 
"ring"  in  the  same  way  that  Parkman's  do. 

"  It  was  past  noon  of  a  day  brightened  with  the  clear  sun- 
light of  an  American  midsummer,  when  the  forces  of  Brad- 
dock  began,  for  a  second  time,  to  cross  the  Monongahela, 
at  the  fording-place  which  to  this  day  bears  the  name  of 
their  ill-fated  leader.  The  scarlet  columns  of  the  British 
regulars,  complete  in  martial  appointment,  the  rude  back- 
woodsmen with  shouldered  rifles,  the  trains  of  artillery  and 
the  white-topped  wagons,  moved  on  in  long  procession 
through  the  shallow  current,  and  slowly  mounted  the  oppos- 
ing bank.  Men  were  there  whose  names  have  become 
historic.  Gage,  who,  twenty  years  later,  saw  his  routed 
battalions  recoil  in  disorder  from  before  the  breastwork  on 
Bunker  Hill ;  Gates,  the  future  conqueror  of  Burgoyne ; 
and  one  destined  to  a  higher  fame,  —  George  Washington, 
a  boy  in  years,  a  man  in  calm  thought  and  self-ruling 
wisdom. 

"  With  steady  and  well-ordered  march,  the  troops  ad- 
vanced into  the  great  labyrinth  of  woods  which  shadowed 
the  eastern  borders  of  the  river.  Rank  after  rank  vanished 
from  sight.  The  forest  swallowed  them  up,  and  the  silence 
of  the  wilderness  sank  down  once  more  on  the  shores  and 
waters  of  the  Monongahela. 


CHAP,  vii]  The  Sentence  125 

"  Several  engineers  and  guides  and  six  light  horse  men 
led  the  way ;  a  body  of  grenadiers  under  Gage  was  close 
behind,  and  the  army  followed  in  such  order  as  the  rough 
ground  would  permit,  along  a  narrow  road,  twelve  feet  wide, 
tunnelled  through  the  dense  and  matted  foliage.  There 
were  flanking  parties  on  either  side,  but  no  scouts  to  scour 
the  woods  in  front,  and  with  an  insane  confidence  Braddock 
pressed  on  to  meet  his  fate.  The  van  had  passed  the  low 
grounds  that  bordered  the  river,  and  w^ere  now  ascending  a 
gently  rising  ground,  where,  on  either  hand,  hidden  by  thick 
trees,  by  tangled  undergrowth  and  rank  grasses,  lay  the  two 
fatal  ravines.  Suddenly,  Gordon,  an  engineer  in  advance, 
saw  the  French  and  Indians  bounding  forward  through  the 
forest  and  along  the  narrow  track,  Beaujeau  leading  them 
on,  dressed  in  a  fringed  hunting-shirt,  and  wearing  a  silver 
gorget  on  his  breast.  He  stopped,  turned,  and  waved  his 
hat,  and  his  French  followers,  crowding  across  the  road, 
opened  a  murderous  fire  upon  the  head  of  the  British 
column ;  while,  screeching  their  war-cries,  the  Indians 
thronged  into  the  ravines,  or  crouched  behind  rocks  and 
trees  on  both  flanks  of  the  advancing  troops.  The  aston- 
ished grenadiers  returned  the  fire,  and  returned  it  with  good 
effect ;  for  a  random  shot  struck  down  the  brave  Beaujeau, 
and  the  courage  of  the  assailants  was  staggered  by  his  fall. 
Dumas,  second  in  command,  ralUed  them  to  the  attack ; 
and  while  he,  with  the  French  and  Canadians,  made  good 
the  pass  in  front,  the  Indians  from  their  lurking  places 
opened  a  deadly  fire  on  the  right  and  left.  In  a  few  mo- 
ments, all  was  confusion.  The  advance  guard  fell  back  on 
the  main  body,  and  every  trace  of  subordination  vanished. 
The  fire  soon  extended  along  the  whole  length  of  the  army, 
from  front  to  rear.  Scarce  an  enemy  could  be  seen,  though 
the  forest  resounded  with  their  yells ;  though  every  bush 
and  tree  was  alive  with  incessant  flashes ;  though  the  lead 


1 26  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vii 

flew  like  a  hailstorm,  and  the  men  went  down  by  scores* 
The  regular  troops  seemed  bereft  of  their  senses.  They 
huddled  together  in  the  road  Hke  flocks  of  sheep ;  and 
happy  did  he  think  himself  who  could  wedge  his  way  into 
the  midst  of  the  crowd,  and  place  a  barrier  of  human  flesh 
between  his  life  and  the  shot  of  the  ambushed  marksmen. 
Many  were  seen  eagerly  loading  their  muskets,  and  then 
firing  them  into  the  air,  or  shooting  their  own  comrades  in 
the  insanity  of  their  terror.  The  officers,  for  the  most  part^ 
displayed  a  conspicuous  gallantry ;  but  threats  and  com- 
mands were  wasted  alike  on  the  panic-stricken  multitude. 
It  is  said  that  at  the  outset  Braddock  showed  signs  of  fear ; 
but  he  soon  recovered  his  wonted  intrepidity.  Five  horses 
were  shot  under  him,  and  five  times  he  mounted  afresh. 
He  stormed  and  shouted,  and,  while  the  Virginians  were 
fighting  to  good  purpose,  each  man  behind  a  tree,  like  the 
Indians  themselves,  he  ordered  them  with  furious  menace 
to  form  in  platoons,  where  the  fire  of  the  enemy  mowed 
them  down  like  grass.  At  length,  a  mortal  shot  silenced 
him,  and  two  provincials  bore  him  ofl"  the  field.  Washing- 
ton rode  through  the  tumult  calm  and  undaunted.  Two 
horses  were  killed  under  him,  and  four  bullets  pierced  his 
clothes ;  but  his  hour  was  not  come,  and  he  escaped 
without  a  wound.  Gates  was  shot  through  the  body, 
and  Gage  also  was  severely  wounded.  Of  eighty-six 
officers,  only  twenty-three  remained  unhurt ;  and  of  twelve 
hundred  soldiers  who  crossed  the  Monongahela,  more 
than  seven  hundred  were  killed  and  wounded.  None 
suffered  more  severely  than  the  Virginians,  who  had  dis- 
played throughout  a  degree  of  courage  and  steadiness 
which  put  the  cowardice  of  the  regulars  to  shame.  The 
havoc  among  them  was  terrible,  for  of  their  whole  number 
scarcely  one-fifth  left  the  field  ahve." 

—  Parkman  :    The  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac. 


CHAP,  vii]  The  Sentence  127 

91.  Imitative  Practice  in  Sentence  Building.  —  Pupils 
may  get  excellent  practice  in  sentence  building  by 
putting  together  in  their  own  way  the  rough  elements 
obtained  by  the  analysis  of  a  well-constructed  sen- 
tence, and  then  comparing  their  results  with  the 
original.  These,  for  instance,  are  the  elements  of 
which  was  made  the  opening  sentence  in  the  extract 
from  Parkman  quoted  in  the  preceding  section.  To 
put  these  together  for  oneself  and  then  to  compare 
the  result  with  the  original  is  to  gain  a  real  insight 
into  the  balance  and  rhythm  and  force  which  that 
great  author  gave  to  every  sentence  he  wrote. 

It  was  past  noon.  The  It  was  past  noon  of  a  day 
day  was  brightened  with  the  brightened  with  the  clear 
clear  sunshine  of  an  Ameri-  sunlight  of  an  American  mid- 
can  midsummer.  The  forces  summer,  when  the  forces  of 
of  Braddock  began  to  cross  Braddock  began,  for  a  second 
the  Monongahela.  It  was  time,  to  cross  the  Monon- 
for  the  second  time.  It  was  gahela,  at  the  fording-place 
at  the  fording-place  which  which  to  this  day  bears  the 
to  this  day  bears  the  name  name  of  their  ill-fated  leader, 
of  their   ill-fated   leader. 


EXERCISE  42 

I.  Bring  to  the  class  room  a  copy  of  a  thoroughly 
well-constructed  sentence,  chosen  from  your  own 
reading,  and  an  analysis,  similar  to  that  given  in  the 
first  column  above,  of  the  same  sentence.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  class  should  then  exchange  analyses,  and 
spend  five  or  six  minutes  in  framing  them  into  sen- 


128  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vii 

tences.  The  original  sentences  should  then  be  read 
and  the  results  compared.  The  purpose  of  this 
exercise  is  to  encourage  the  pupil  to  learn  sentence 
structure  by  imitation,  —  an  excellent  method. 

11.  Construct  good  sentences  from  the  analyses 
given  below  ^ :  — 

I.  It  was  an  evil  hour  for  Canada.  Samuel  de  Champlain 
departed  from  the  hamlet  of  Quebec.  He  went  to  follow  a 
war-party  of  Algonquins  against  their  hated  enemy,  the 
Iroquois.  It  was  the  twenty-eighth  of  May,  1609.  2.  He 
ascended  the  Sorel.  He  passed  the  rapids  at  Chambly, 
He  embarked  on  the  lake  which  bears  his  name.  He 
steered  southward  with  his  savage  associates,  toward  the 
rocky  promontory  of  Ticonderoga.  With  him  were  two 
French  attendants.  3.  They  moved  with  all  the  precaution 
of  Indian  warfare.  At  length  they  descried  a  band  of  the 
Iroquois.  They  were  approaching  through  the  gloom.  They 
were  in  their  large  canoes  of  elm-bark.  Night  was  closing 
in.  4.  The  discovery  was  mutual.  It  was  announced  by 
wild  yells  from  either  side.  5.  The  Iroquois  hastened  to 
the  shore.  All  night  long  the  forest  resounded  with  their 
discordant  war-songs  and  fierce  whoops  of  defiance.  6.  Day 
dawned.  The  fight  began.  7.  The  Iroquois  bounded  from 
tree  to  tree.  They  pressed  forward  to  the  attack.  Cham- 
plain  advanced  from  among  the  Algonquins.  He  stood  full 
in  sight  before  them,  with  his  strange  attire,  his  shining 
breastplate,  and  features  unlike  their  own.  They  saw  the 
flash  of  his  arquebuse.  They  beheld  two  of  their  chiefs  fall 
dead.  They  could  not  contain  their  terror.  They  fled  for 
shelter  into  the  depths  of  the  wood.  8.  The  Algonquins 
pursued.  They  slew  many  in  the  flight.  The  victory  was 
complete. 

1  Parkman,  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac^  chapter  3, 


CHAP,  vii]  The  Sentence  129 

92.  Summary. — What  has  been  said  in  this  chapter 
may  be  summarized  thus.  A  well-constructed  sentence 
must,  as  a  rule,  have  the  following  characteristics :  — 

(i)  Its  structure  should  be  evident. 

(2)  In  many  cases  its  structure  should  be  partly 
or  wholly  periodic. 

(3)  In  many  cases  some  of  its  parts  should  be 
parallel  in  form. 

EXERCISE  43 

I.  Write  three  compositions  of  about  ten  sentences 
each,  explaining,  in  your  own  words,  the  three  points 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  section. 

II.  Correct  and  improve  the  following  sentences  :  — 

I.  Here  weary  travellers  lay  aside  their  burdens,  here 
careworn  toilers  forget  the  duties  of  the  workaday  world, 
here  students,  weary  of  the  endless  search  for  knowledge, 
put  aside  the  thought  of  bookish  lore,  and  this  is  the  place 
where  all  are  young  and  happy^-  2.  He  still  went  to  the 
post-office  every  day  from  force  of  habit,  and  wishing  to 
persuade  himself  that  he  had  not  quite  lost  hope.  3.  Yet 
the  decision  had  been  rendered  and  he  knew  his  failure  and 
that  his  rival  was  triumphant.  4.  He  returns  the  slide  to 
the  camera  with  the  air  of  a  man  who  has  completed  a  hard 
task,  just  as  if  he  did  not  know  the  picture  was  not  good 
and  the  baby  must  be  brought  again  to  sit  for  its  picture. 
5.  The  foregoing  is  the  smallest  part  of  the  work  for  the 
photographer,  as  the  picture  has  yet  to  be  developed  and 
printed,  which  is  the  most  difficult  and  slowest  part  of 
the  operation.  6.  It  is  best  to  be  dependent  on  no  one 
at  any  time,  and  especially  in  time  of  danger ;  especially  is 
this  true  for  the  man  who  cannot  swim,  as  he  has  to  leave 
himself  to  the  mercy  of  others,  and  in  case  of  shipwreck 


1 30  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  vii 

promptness  is  the  only  thing  that  will  save,  for  as  that  old 
proverb  says,  the  man  who  hesitates  is  lost.  7.  The  ambi- 
tion of  a  great  conqueror  to  widen  his  dominions  never 
allows  him  to  take  his  ease  until  there  are  no  lands  left  to 
conquer,  yet  he  knows  not  why.  8.  Silas  Marner  was  a 
man  with  prominent,  short-sighted  brown  eyes,  and  much 
bent.  9.  You  may  be  sure  that  however  good  you  may  be, 
you  have  faults ;  that  however  dull  you  may  be,  you  can 
find  out  some  of  them ;  and  that  even  if  thfey  are  slight 
you  had  better  try  to  cure  them.  10.  The  writer  became 
acquainted  with  his  genial  host,  and  smoking  one  of  his  good 
Havanas,  and  while  he  sipped  a  glass  of  Tokay,  heard  all 
about  the  opening  of  the  caf(§.  11.  This  and  much  more 
he  told  of  the  beginning,  and  of  to  what  proportions  his 
venture  had  grown,  but  we  had  not  long  to  talk.  12.  The 
bamboo  is  used  in  a  variety  of  ways,  —  building  material, 
cooking  utensils,  eaten,  the  fibres  twisted  into  rope,  and 
many  others.  13.  He  was  popular  enough,  for  he  was 
one  of  those  taking  fellows,  young,  good-looking,  and 
that  had  lots  of  money.  14.  His  writings  covered  many 
fields,  —  criticism,  history,  scientific,  philosophical,  biog- 
raphy. 15.  Aside  from  learning  to  swim  because  of  the 
healthy  exercise  and  the  enjoyment  there  is  something  more 
to  be  considered,  and  that  is  that  only  once  in  your  life 
may  the  art  be  necessary,  but  that  one  time  may  save  your 
life. 


CHAP,  viii]  The  Sentence  131 


CHAPTER   VIII 

THE  SENTENCE:    ITS  RHETORICAL  STRUCTURE   {continued) 

93.  The  Fifth  Essential:  Unity.  — 94.  Lack  of  Unity  in  Sub- 
stance :  TOO  MUCH  in  a  Sentence.  —  Exercise  44.  —  95.  Lack 
OF  Unity  in  Form.  —  96.  Intricate  Construction.  —  97.  ChangF; 
OF  Construction.  — 98.  The  Unity  of  the  Complex  Sentence. 

—  Exercise  45.-99.  The  Sixth  Essential:  Emphasis.  — Ex- 
ercise 46.  — 100.  The  Seventh  Essential:  Coherence.— 
101.  Incoherence. —  102.  Incoherence  due  to  False  Posi- 
tion. —  Exercise  47.  — 103.  Incoherence  due  to  a  Fault  in 
THE  Use  of  Reference  Words  or  Conjunctions.  —  104.  False 
Reference:  Pronouns.  —  Exercise  48.  — 105.  False  Connec- 
tion:   Participles.— 106.   False  Connection:   Conjunctions. 

—  Exercise  49.  — 107.   Summary.— Exercise  50. 

93.  The  Fifth  Essential :  Unity.  —  A  sentence  has 
unity  when  it  expresses  clearly  a  single  idea,  exclud- 
ing all  that  does  not  have  directly  to  do  with  that 
idea.  In  the  following  passage,  for  instance,  it  is 
evident  that  the  first,  second,  and  third  sentences 
each  make  a  distinct  point  as  to  the  character  of  a 
certain  morning,  and  the  fourth  and  fifth  sentences 
each  a  distinct  point  with  regard  to  the  actions  of  the 
author. 

"When  I  awoke  in  the  morning,  a  brilliant  autumnal  sun 
was  shining  in  at  my  window.  The  merry  song  of  birds 
mingled  sweetly  with  the  sound  of  rustling  leaves  and  the 
gurgle  of  the  brook.  The  vintagers  were  going  forth  to 
their  toil ;    the  winepress  was  busy  in  the  shade,  and  the 


132  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  viii 

clatter  of  the  mill  kept  time  to  the  miller's  song.  I  loitered 
about  the  village  with  a  feeling  of  calm  delight.  I  was  unwill- 
ing to  leave  the  seclusion  of  this  sequestered  hamlet ;  but 
at  length,  with  reluctant  step,  I  took  the  cross-road  through 
the  vineyard,  and  in  a  moment  the  little  village  had  sunk 
again,  as  if  by  enchantment,  into  the  bosom  of  the  earth." 

—  Longfellow  :   Outre-Mer. 

94.  Lack  of  Unity  in  Substance :  too  much  in  a  Sen- 
tence. —  Sometimes  the  substance  of  a  sentence  lacks 
unity;  it  consists  of  two  thoughts  rather  than  one. 
Notice  the  following  examples  :  — 

{a)  [Bad.]  The  perpendicular  height  of  the  falls  is  fifty 
feet ;  the  immensity  and  awfulness  of  the  scene  make  us 
marvel  at  the  handiwork  of  the  Creator.  [Here  are  two 
ideas:  (i)  that  the  falls  are  fifty  feet  high;  (2)  that  the 
scene  is  extraordinarily  impressive.  These  two  ideas  are 
not  dependent  on  each  other :  the  falls  may  be  fifty  feet 
high,  and  still  not  awful.] 

(a)  [Good.]  The  perpendicular  height  of  the  fall  is  fifty 
feet.  The  immensity  and  awfulness  of  the  scene  make  us 
marvel  at  the  handiwork  of  the  Creator. 

{a)  [Good.]  Although  the  perpendicular  height  of  the 
falls  is  only  fifty  feet,  the  immensity  and  awfulness  of  the 
scene  make  us  marvel  at  the  handiwork  of  the  Creator. 
[Here  there  is  only  one  idea :  that,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
the  falls  are  not  very  high,  the  scene  is  impressive.] 

{F)  [Bad.]  It  is  just  a  year  since  the  foundations  were 
laid,  and  the  cost  of  the  whole  building  and  its  furnish- 
ings is  five  hundred  thousand  dollars.  [Here  there  are  two 
ideas  :  ( i )  that  the  building  was  completed  in  a  certain  time  ; 
(2)  that  it  cost  a  certain  amount.  These  two  ideas  are  not 
dependent  on  each  other  and  do  not  belong  in  the  same 
sentence.] 


CHAP,  viii]  The  Sentence  133 

(^)  [Good.]  It  is  just  a  year  since  the  foundations  were 
laid.  The  cost  of  the  whole  building  and  its  furnishings  is 
five  hundred  thousand  dollars. 

{h)  [Good.]  Although  only  a  year  has  passed  since  the 
foundations  of  the  building  were  laid,  five  hundred  thousand 
dollars  have  already  been  expended  on  it.  [Here  there  is 
only  one  idea.] 

(<r)  [Bad.]  This  discovery  of  Harvey's  is  perhaps  the 
most  important  that  has  ever  been  made  in  the  science  of 
medicine,  the  next  at  which  we  shall  look  being  that  of 
respiration.     [Two  ideas.] 

{c)  [Good.]  This  discovery  of  Harvey's  is  perhaps  the 
most  important  that  has  ever  been  made  in  the  science 
of  medicine.  The  next  at  which  we  shall  look  is  that  of 
respiration. 

EXERCISE  44 

Rewrite  the  following  sentences,  taking  care  that 
each  of  your  sentences  contains  only  one  main  idea, 
and  that  that  stands  out  plainly :  — 

I.  It  was  the  funeral  of  an  old  man,  once  great  as  his 
noble  face  showed,  but  in  the  latter  years  of  his  life  his 
mind  had  gone  back  to  the  time  when  his^  mother  cared 
for  him.  2.  Then  every  one  began  teasing  them  and  telling 
others  to  hit  thefn,  and  the  people  called  Beelzebub,  the 
head  man  of  the  fair,  and  he  came  quickly  and  commanded 
some  of  his  best  friends  to  have  the  travellers  beaten,  cov- 
ered with  mud,  and  put  into  ^  cage  where  every  one  could 
see  and  taunt  them,  and  all  the  while  Beelzebub  sat  looking 
at  them  and  laughed.  3.  When  Odysseus  heard  this,  he 
was  very  angry  and  walked  with  very  long  strides  toward  the 
palace ;  when  he  got  there  he  went  in  and  put  on  his  best 
clothes,  and  took  a  bag  of  salt,  and  went  out  and  harnessed 


134  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  viii 

an  ox  and  an  ass  together  to  a  plough,  and  then  he  began 
to  plough  the  sand,  scattering  salt  on  each  furrow.  4.  We 
are  glad  to  note  the  very  liberal  policy  the  authorities  have 
adopted  in  not  laying  down  a  set  of  rules  and  restrictions 
for  the  use  of  our  new  gymnasium,  yet  there  is  one  regula- 
tion which  we  feel  should  certainly  be  put  in  force  ;  this  is 
the  requiring  of  the  boys  to  take  shower  baths  before  enter- 
ing the  swimming  pool.  5.  For  the  next  few  years  the 
College  has  plenty  of  room,  but  if  we  look  far  into  the 
future  we  shall  see  that  the  grounds  will  soon  be  covered, 
then  where  shall  we  go  for  more  room?  6.  During  the 
college  year  there  are  in  all  about  thirty  days  vacation, 
which  when  added  to  the  summer  vacation,  leaves  little 
more  than  half  a  year  for  college  work,  which  is  entirely 
too  short  a  time  for  the  important  work  of  a  college  student 
to  be  done  in.  7.  Tom,  though  in  love  with  Rose  himself, 
has  conspired  to  bring  them  together  again,  showing  his 
love  to  be  entirely  noble  and  disinterested.  8.  There  are 
fine  bits  of  description  throughout,  which  take  the  place 
of  illustrations,  and  in  style  it  may  be  compared  with  any 
of  Scott's  works.  9.  The  main  purpose  is  to  see  how  far 
one  can  ride  during  seven  consecutive  days,  thus  it  usually 
turns  out  that  the  best-trained  man  and  one  who  has  the 
hardiest  constitution,  will  win.  10.  This  statement  will  ap- 
peal to  most  persons ;  for  the  bare  sight  of  the  competitors 
at  the  end  of  the  race  will  convince  in  most  cases  the 
looker-on  that  this  style  of  racing  is  not  human,  and  that  it 
does  not  promote  cycle-racing,  but  that  it  is  brutal  and 
degrading.  11.  A  competition  like  the  six-day  races,  in 
which  skill  or  ability  has  no  part,  but  in  which  exhaustion 
and  fatigue  decide  the  winner,  can  no  more  be  called  a 
sport  fit  for  the  present  century  than  bull-fighting  or  six-day 
foot  races,  and  hence  ought  to  be  abolished.  12.  Of  course 
the  excitement  was  much  more  intense  in  a  cane  rush  as 


CHAP,  viii]  The  Sentence  135 

every  one  participated,  therefore  as  the  excitement  increased, 
the  contestants  became  wild,  and  thus  often  things  were  done 
which  would  not  be  done  in  a  less  exciting  contest.  13.  Their 
descent  was  along  a  narrow  and  winding  path,  from  which 
the  Tengis  could  be  distinctly  seen  ;  not  only  the  lake  was 
seen  by  the  Chinese  soldiers,  however,  but  also  thousands 
and  even  millions  of  human  beings  were  seen  rushing  into 
the  shallow  water,  and  madly  drinking  the  polluted  liquid. 
14.  Suddenly  becoming  alarmed,  however,  he  turned  toward 
the  gate;  it  was  too  late,  it  was  shut.  15.  His  eldest  son, 
George,  was  very  unfortunate,  travelling  all  around  the  conti- 
nent in  search  of  a  living,  being  a  tutor,  servant,  and  selUng 
himself  for  a  slave.  16.  All  these  instruments  tend  to  exer- 
cise the  body,  but  what  is  more  necessary  than  all  these 
gymnastics  is  obedience.  17.  There  are  a  great  many 
objections  raised  to  this  plan ;  it  will  certainly  increase  the 
taxes ;  some  of  our  statesmen  declare  that  we  shall  soon 
develop  into  a  power,  and  that  if  we  have  a  standing  army, 
we  shall  not  stop  at  the  PhiHppines,  but  seek  other  colonies. 

18.  That  romanticism  is  more  interesting  than  the  realism 
which  is  prevalent,  I  grant;  but  it  seems  to  me  that  the 
realism  of  which  we  think  is  only  superficial,  and  naturally 
the  discussion  or  narration  of  the  common  will  be  interest- 
ing, but  the  point  which  I  wish  to  make  is  that  if  the  inner 
hves  of  the  majority  of  the  human  race  were  disclosed,  we 
should  have  romances  and  even  tragedies  in  abundance. 

19.  The  entire  grounds  of  the  university  consists  of  a  com- 
parative small  number  of  acres,  which  are  covered  by  a  few 
of  the  necessary  buildings,  but  the  most  necessary  part  of 
the  college,  the  campus,  is  lacking.  20.  We  only  hope  that 
the  money  resulting  from  the  sale  of  the  property  may  be 
employed  in  the  purchase  of  the  large  field  opposite  the 
library,  and  with  dormitories  erected  in  each  corner  of  it, 
do  not  doubt  but  that  a  very  great  increase  of  students  will 


13^  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  viii 

be  noticeable  next  year.  21.  At  the  given  signal  a  wrestle 
began  for  the  mastery  of  the  stick  and  with  each  man  trying 
to  keep  both  feet  on  the  ground  and  both  hands  on  the 
stick   there   was   not   likely   to   be   any   personal  damage. 

22.  Many  of  our  wild  animals  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits, 
and  but  seldom  leave  their  lair  during  the  daytime,  there- 
fore it  would  be  quite  a  task  for  naturalists  to  ascertain 
their  secret  habits,  resorting  to  all  the  secrecy  imaginable. 

23.  He  wished  now  to  claim  her  as  his  bride,  and  went  to 
her  father's  court  to  inquire  of  her  whereabouts,  and  on 
being  told  that  she  had  set  up  a  woman's  college,  the  Prince 
with  two  friends,  Florian  and  Cyril,  went  in  search  of  her. 

24.  Dr.  Primrose  was  a  prosperous  vicar,  with  all  the  neces- 
sities and  many  of  the  luxuries  of  life  and  was  accustomed 
to  take  things  easy,  until  one  day  when  his  fortunes  sud- 
denly failed,  and  he  was  left  almost  penniless,  with  a  family, 
accustomed  to  having  almost  everything  they  desired,  on 
his  hands  to  support.  25.  But  the  family  of  the  Vicar  of 
Wakefield  was  one  of  the  best  contented  among  them- 
selves, in  prosperity  and  adversity  that  could  be  found  any- 
where, so  that  they  seemed  to  have  perfect  faith  in  the 
statement  that  the  righteous  are  never  forsaken. 

95.  Lack  of  Unity  in  Form.  —  Sometimes  the  form 
of  a  sentence  lacks  unity ;  the  matter  expressed 
constitutes  a  single  idea,  but  the  form  does  not 
allow  the  idea  to  appear  clearly  and  definitely. 
This  may  be  due  to  one  of  several  causes. 

96.  Intricate  Construction.  —  See  also  §  69.  Com- 
pare the  pairs  of  sentences  below.  In  the  former 
of  each  pair  the  structure  is  so  intricate  that  the 
unity  of  the  idea  is  obscured ;  in  the  latter  the 
structure  is  simplified,  and  unity  is  secured. 


CHAP,  viii]  The  Sentence  137 

{a)  [Bad.]  Early  in  the  morning  of  May  i,  long  be- 
fore sunrise,  Admiral  Dewey,  with  his  fleet  of  eight  ships, 
consisting  of  the  Olympia,  which  was  the  flagship,  the 
Boston^  the  Petrel,  the  Concord^  the  Philadelphia,  the  Balti- 
more, the  Raleigh,  and  the  revenue  cutter  McCullogh, 
silently  entered  the  harbor  of  Manila,  and  was  not  detected 
by  the  Spaniards  until  he  was  well  past  the  forts  guarding 
the  entrance.  [This  sentence  treats  of  a  single  idea, 
Dewey's  entering  the  harbor  of  Manila ;  but  there  are  so 
many  details  to  be  stated  that  the  central  fact  is  obscured. 
In  such  cases  it  is  better  to  divide  the  idea  into  several 
smaller  ideas,  and  to  express  each  clearly  and  simply  in 
a  sentence.] 

(a)  [Good.]  Long  before  sunrise  on  the  morning  of 
May  I,  Admiral  Dewey  silently  entered  the  harbor  of  Ma- 
nila. His  fleet  consisted  of  eight  ships,  etc.  Not  until 
he  was  well  past  the  forts  guarding  the  entrance  did  the 
Spaniards  detect  him. 

(b)  [Bad.]  However,  this  defeat  was  no  dishonor  to 
Cervera,  as  he  did  the  most  manly  thing  to  do  under  the 
circumstances,  and  even  though  he  is  censured  by  his  own 
countrymen  his  conduct  will  always  be  considered  with  ad- 
miration and  respect,  and  he  will  hold  an  honored  place 
in  the  hearts  of  the  justice-loving  people  against  whom  he  so 
bravely  fought. 

{F)  [Good.]  However,  defeat  was  to  Cervera  no  dis- 
honor. Under  the  circumstances,  he  did  the  most  manly 
thing  there  was  to  do.  Even  though  he  is  censured  by  his 
own  countrymen,  his  conduct  will  always  be  considered  with 
admiration,  and  he  will  hold,  etc. 

97.  Change  of  Construction.  —  Unless  the  thought 
makes  it  necessary,  it  is  unwise  to  change  the  con- 
struction  in  the  course  of  a  complex  or  compound 


138  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  viii 

sentence.  If  the  sentence  concerns  A,  and  A  is 
the  subject  of  the  first  clause,  let  A,  and  not  some 
other  person  or  thing,  be  the  subject  of  the  other 
clause  or  clauses.  Notice  the  difference  in  this 
respect  between  the  sentences  in  each  of  the  pairs 
below.     Compare  §  Z'^^  on  parallel  structure. 

{d)  [Bad.]  Suddenly  she  thought  she  heard  something 
move  behind  her,  but  nothing  could  be  seen. 

(a)  [Good.]  Suddenly  she  thought  she  heard  something 
move  behind  her,  but  she  could  see  nothing. 

(b)  [Bad.]  After  showing  this  remarkable  production, 
these  words  were  once  more  pointed  out,  and  the  poet 
offered  to  explain  them. 

(F)  [Good.]  After  showing  this  remarkable  production, 
the  poet  pointed  out  these  words,  and  offered  to  explain  them. 

98.  The  Unity  of  the  Complex  Sentence.  —  It  should 
be  noticed  that  the  complex  sentence,  which  neces- 
sarily has  only  a  single  principal  verb,  has  naturally 
more  unity  than  a  compound  sentence,  which  must 
have  at  least  two  principal  verbs,  and  hence  must 
include  at  least  two  statements. 

EXERCISE  45 

Rewrite  the  following  sentences,  improving  them 
as  much  as  possible:  — 

I.  A  deep  sense  of  obligation  to  my  country  and  an 
American's  duty  to  defend  an  insulted,  threatened,  and 
struggling  American  colony,  planted  as  righteously  and 
firmly  on  the  North  Pacific  Isles  as  our  pilgrim  fathers 
established  themselves  on  Plymouth  Rock,  demand  that  I 


CHAP,  viii]  The  Sentence  139 

shall  make  an  answer  to  the  astounding  misrepresentations 
and  untruths  of  Commissioner  Blount's  report  on  Hawaiian 
affairs,  a  copy  of  which  I  first  obtained  with  difficulty, 
Saturday  evening,  November  25.  2.  Most  of  my  men  were 
married,  and  had  famihes  of  from  five  to  fourteen  children, 
after  discharging  those  men  on  a  Saturday  night  when  they 
would  receive  their  pay,  their  wives  would  come  to  me  with 
one  child  on  their  arm  and  another  tugging  at  their  dress 
and  ask  me  with  tears  in  their  eyes,  what  their  husbands 
were  discharged  for,  and  the  little  babies  would  look  at  me 
as  if  I  was  robbing  them  of  their  bread  and  butter,  they 
told  me  that  their  husbands  worked  so  long  for  me  and  that 
they  never  worked  anywhere  else,  it  would  be  the  cause  of 
breaking  up  their  httle  home  and  separating  their  little 
family,  which  I  found  to  be  true,  as  in  a  short  while  there 
was  a  Gerry  Agent  at  my  office  and  would  ask  me  about 
family  so  and  so,  I  would  tell  him  they  were  a  good  family, 
but  times  were  very  hard  and  I  had  to  let  him  go. 
3.  Hobson  offered  a  plan  which  he  thought  would  settle 
the  matter,  and  this  was  the  plan  ;  to  blow  up  the  Merrimac 
in  order  to  obstruct  the  passage  of  Cervera's  fleet.  4.  Dr. 
McCosh  was  a  Scotchman  by  birth,  and  before  he  came  to 
this  country  he  had  achieved  widespread  fame  as  a  philo- 
sophical writer,  an  organizer  of  the  Free  Church,  and  a 
professor  in  Queen's  College,  Belfast,  where  he  wrote  his 
Intuitions  of  the  Mind  Inductively  Investigated  which  gave 
him  a  leading  position  as  a  metaphysical  writer.  He 
came  to  this  country  in  1868,  having  been  elected  president 
of  Princeton  College,  which  position  he  held  until  1888, 
when  he  retired  owing  to  his  age,  and  Dr.  Patton  was  elected 
as  his  successor.  5.  Mr.  Taylor  was  questioned  in  regard 
to  the  accuracy  of  the  statement  contained  in  the  despatch 
yesterday  from  San  Sebastian  to  the  Temps  of  Paris,  pur- 
porting to  give  the  substance  of  the  interview  which  took 


140  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  viii 

place  on  Sunday  last  between  Minister  Woodford  and  the 
Duke  of  Tetuan,  the  Spanish  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  in 
which  General  Woodford  is  said  to  have  insisted  upon  the 
necessity  of  terminating  the  war  in  Cuba,  and  to  have 
declared  that  if  it  is  not  terminated  by  the  end  of  October 
the  United  States  will  feel  justified  in  taking  measures  to 
secure  the  independence  of  Cuba.  6.  On  investigation  it 
was  found  that  the  hoppers  were  attacked  by  a  small  blue 
fly,  with  white  wings,  which  deposited  several  eggs  on  the 
hopper  that  soon  hatched  small  white  worms,  which  ate  the 
hoppers'  vitals  and  killed  them.  7.  But  fortune  changed, 
and  Miss  Hepzibah  found  herself,  after  so  many  years  of 
penury  and  want,  snugly  ensconced  in  a  large  estate  with 
plenty  to  last  her  throughout  her  mortal  life,  and  to  leave  to 
her  relatives  and  those  who  had  been  kind  to  her  while 
living  enough  to  make  them  comfortable  while  they  remained 
on  earth.  8.  First  he  was  very  much  confused  at  the  ter- 
rible whir  and  turmoil,  which  used  to  make  him  almost 
speechless ;  he  gradually  overcame  this  weakness,  how- 
ever. 9.  But  there  are  numerous  example  of  fellows  who 
have  found,  after  spending  the  first  few  weeks  in  neglecting 
their  studies,  that  it  pays  to  keep  up  to  the  standing  of  the 
class ;  for  it  is  after  only  a  few  weeks  when  he  is  obliged  to 
take  examinations,  and,  then,  when  he  has  failed  in  passing 
them,  he  is  confronted  with  an  enormous  amount  of  work  in 
order  to  regain  his  lost  standing.  10.  And  they  seem  to 
know  the  subjects  which  they  teach,  the  fact  which  has  most 
weight  with  me,  for,  although  I  cannot  bear  a  disagreeable 
teacher,  a  teacher  who  does  not  understand  the  thing  he  is 
supposed  to  teach  is  fully  as  objectionable,  if  not  more  so. 
II.  It  is  more  Hkely  in  most  cases  that  they  have  no  com- 
mand over  their  vocabularies,  and  when  they  wish  to  talk  at 
length  they  begin  very  nicely,  but  when  they  have  travelled 
along  smoothly  until  their  vocabularies  are  exhausted  they 


CHAP,  viii]  The  Sentence  141 

begin  to  fill  in  the  unpleasant  gaps  with  halting  expressions, 
^' don't  you  know,"  and  others,  just  as  useless.  12.  His  Hfe 
has  been  a  strange  one ;  once  a  prisoner,  he  was  held  in 
great  esteem,  and  upon  the  death  of  his  master,  succeeded 
to  his  estates  and  power.  13.  Gladstone's  greatness  in- 
volves many  noble  quaHties,  and  chief  among  these  qualities 
is  his  perseverance,  to  which  is  due  his  greatness  as  a  states- 
man. 14.  The  President  did  not  wish  for  war ;  most  of  the 
people  did ;  and  after  a  long  time  of  debating  Congress 
decided  that  war  there  must  be,  and  Mr.  McKinley  sent  out 
a  call  for  volunteers.  15.  Great  Britain  cannot  offer  a 
market  for  the  sugar  of  the  West  Indian  colonies  while  the 
continent  pays  a  bounty  on  the  best  sugar  produced  in  her 
countries,  thus  offering  it  to  Great  Britain  and  the  world  for 
next  to  nothing,  unless  she  imposes  a  heavy  duty  on  sugar 
imported  from  the  continent,  or  induces  the  continent  to 
withdraw  the  bounty. 

99.  The  Sixth  Essential :  Emphasis.  —  In  a  well- 
made  sentence  the  more  important  parts  should  be 
so  placed  as  to  occupy  conspicuous  or  emphatic 
positions.  The  emphatic  positions  are,  especially, 
the  beginning  and  the  end,  either  of  a  sentence  or 
of  a  clause.      Compare  the  following  examples :  — 

{a)  [Bad.]  His  wife,  a  hard  woman  of  the  world,  never 
cared  for  him,  and  the  expression  on  her  face  was  one  more 
of  joy  and  relief  than  of  sorrow  and  remorse  as  she  looked 
at  him  for  the  last  time.  [Here  it  is  not  the  last  time  that  is 
important,  but  joy  and  relief. '\ 

(a)  [Good.]  His  wife,  a  hard  woman  of  the  world,  never 
cared  for  him,  and  the  expression  on  her  face,  as  she  looked 
at  him  for  the  last  time,  was  one  less  of  sorrow  and  remorse 
than  of  joy  and  relief. 


142  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  viii 

{b)  [Bad.]  The  interest  one  takes  in  this  novel  centres 
in  the  stirring  times  and  events  there  set  forth  more  than  in 
anything  else. 

(b)  [Good.]  The  interest  one  takes  in  this  novel  cen- 
tres, more  than  in  anything  else,  in  the  stirring  times  and 
events  there  set  forth. 

(c)  [Bad.]  Arcite  manages  to  escape  and  become 
employed  in  the  king's  service  so  he  could  see  Emily. 
In  the  meantime  Palamon  is  trying  to  escape  and  finally 
succeeds. 

(<:)  [Good.]  In  order  to  see  Emily,  Arcite  manages  to 
escape  and  become  employed  in  the  king's  service.  Pala- 
mon, in  the  meantime,  succeeds  in  escaping. 

EXERCISE  46 

Rewrite  the  follovi^ing  sentences,  correcting  or  im- 
proving the  emphasis  in  each :  — 

I.  Far  more  important  is  this  local  election,  which  will 
show  whether  we  are  to  retain  the  power  that  we  have  gained 
by  so  much  toil,  than  the  national  election.  2.  At  last,  he 
was  found  in  a  travelHng  theatrical  company,  by  his  father. 
3.  From  this  I  think  that  it  would  have  been  much  more 
advisable  if  the  new  site  of  Columbia  had  been  bought  in 
some  other  part  of  the  state,  where  land  is  of  less  expense 
—  say,  at  Irvington  or  somewhere  on  Long  Island.  4.  What 
fun  they  would  have  in  keeping  their  dignified  bearing  and 
also  a  proper  adjustment  of  the  cap  and  gown,  when  the 
wind  was  whistHng  between  buildings  as  it  is  this  morning, 
for  instance.  5.  No  longer  paying  any  attention  to  the  ap- 
proach of  the  Russians,  they  rush  down  into  the  lake  crazed 
by  the  heat.  6.  He  therefore  urged  that  a  new  calculation 
be  made,  since  the  latest  one  is  incorrect,  incomplete,  and 
unsatisfactory  in  many  ways. 


CHAP,  viii]  The  Sentence  143 

100.  The  Seventh  Essential :  Coherence.  —  Last  of 
all,  it  is  essential  to  a  well-made  sentence  that  the 
relations  between  the  parts  of  the  sentence  shall 
be  clearly  indicated.  When  the  parts  of  a  sentence 
are  so  placed  that  their  relation  to  each  other  is 
clearly  evident,  and  when  each  part  supplements 
the  other  parts  in  thought  and  form,  we  say  that 
the  sentence  is  coherent,  —  that  is,  that  it  is  a 
whole  made  up  of  well-adjusted  parts. 

101.  Incoherence.  —  Incoherence,  or  lack  of  proper 
adjustment  in  the  parts  of  a  sentence,  is  due  to 
one  of  two  causes:  (i)  a  fault  in  the  placing  of 
the  parts;  or  (2)  a  fault  in  the  use  of  words  that 
bind  the  parts  of  a  sentence  together,  or  that  refer 
from  one  part  of  a  sentence  to  another,  —  that  is, 
a  fault  in  the  use  of  conjunctions  or  pronouns. 

102.  Incoherence  due  to  False  Position. — The  first 
great  cause  of  incoherence  is  the  false  position  of 
(i)  words,  (2)  phrases,  and  (3)  clauses.  The  prin- 
ciple involved  is  in  each  case  the  same, — namely, 
that,  in  an  uninflected  language  like  English,  we 
depend  largely  upon  the  position  of  words,  phrases, 
and  clauses,  for  our  knowledge  of  their  relations.  The 
parts  of  a  sentence  that  are  the  most  closely  related 
in  thought  must  as  a  rule,  stand  nearest  each  other. 

Examples :  — 

{a)  [Bad.]  The  exercises  harden  not  only  the  muscles 
but  also  train  the  mind. 

{a)  [Good.]  The  exercises  not  only  harden  the  muscles 
but  also  train  the  mind. 


144  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  viii 

{F)  [Bad.]  There  have  been  several  mass-meetings  held 
in  the  gymnasium  for  this  purpose,  which  have  been  largely 
attended. 

(b)  [Good.]  Several  mass-meetings,  which  have  been 
largely  attended,  have  been  held  in  the  gymnasium  for  this 
purpose. 

(c)  [Bad.]  Tin  horns  were  blown  by  youths  in  their 
teens,  with  the  wildest  enthusiasm,  all  of  whom  were  unable 
to  vote, 

(c)  [Good.]  Tin  horns  were  blown,  with  the  wildest 
enthusiasm,  by  youths  in  their  teens,  all  of  whom  were 
unable  to  vote. 

EXERCISE  47 

Improve  the  f ollow^ing  sentences  :  — 

I.  When  we  reached  the  Oregon,  I  alighted  from  the 
rowboat  and  cHmbed  up  the  side  of  the  war-ship,  which  was 
swinging  at  anchor,  by  a  sort  of  ladder.  2.  A  war-ship 
seems  to  the  visitor  a  miniature  world,  which  acts  of  its  own 
accord,  with  everything  for  the  welfare  and  comfort  of  its 
occupants  aboard,  bent  on  destruction.  3.  Some  plan 
must  be  agreed  on  by  which  questions  that  may  be  submitted 
to  the  convention,  of  jurisdiction,  shall  be  decided.  4.  When 
through  her  course  in  the  gymnasium,  the  student  not  only 
is  healthy  but  also  is  agile  and  graceful.  5.  If  the  voters 
throughout  the  state  would  consider  this,  they  would  realize 
the  necessity  of  not  only  voting  down  the  governor  but  the 
whole  ballot.  6.  In  voting  for  Smith  they  are  neither 
helping  the  Democrats  nor  the  Republicans.  7.  At  a 
dinner  of  famous  literary  men  and  journalists  who  had 
won  distinction,  given  by  two  prominent  publishers,  I 
met  the  author  I  admire  most.  8.  It  is,  therefore,  rea- 
sonable to  suppose  that  in  the  near  future  it  will  not  be 
necessary   to   instruct   college   students   in   the   first   rudi- 


CHAP,  viii]  The  Sentence  145 

ments  of  their  native  language,  matters  which  they  should 
have  mastered  long  ago,  as  in  the  past.  9.  There  is  a 
very  promising  lot  of  candidates  who  are  trying  for  the 
crews,  both  the  Freshman  and  'Varsity.  10.  Theseus,  the 
king  of  Athens,  was  returning  home  after  many  victories 
with  his  wife. 

103.  Incoherence  due  to  a  Fault  in  the  Use  of  Refer- 
ence Words  or  Conjunctions.  —  We  have  seen  how  the 
false  position  of  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  may 
destroy  the  sense  or  effectiveness  of  the  sentence  by 
obscuring  the  relation  between  the  various  parts  of 
the  sentence.  It  now  remains  to  be  seen  how  a 
similar  result  is  brought  about  by  false  reference  and 
false  connection,  i.e.  by  a  clumsy  or  incorrect  use  of 
pronouns  and  conjunctions. 

104.  False  Reference:  Pronouiis. — The  following 
examples  illustrate  incoherehce  due  to  faults  in  the 
use  of  pronouns  :  — 

{a)  He  told  the  coachman  that  he  would  be  the  death 
of  him  if  he  did  not  take^care  what  hg  was  about  and  mind 
what  he  said.  [Does  he  refer  throughout  to  the  same 
person  or  to  different  persons  ?] 

(F)  Description  plays  very  Httle  part  in  the  book,  and 
those  that  do  occur  are  not  interesting.     \Those  what?] 

{c)  If  an  individual  or  a  corporation  had  managed  an 
undertaking  as  this  has  been  managed,  they  would  have  been 
discredited  years  ago.     [To  what  plural  noun  can  they  refer? 

Cf.  §  37-] 

(^)  The  most  important  question  that  has  ever  come 
up  for  debate,  to  which  the  majority  is  opposed,  and  from 
which  the  workingman  shrinks,  is  this.  [  Which  is  too  far 
from  its  antecedent.     Corrected  :  The  most  important  ques- 


146  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  viii 

tion  that  has  ever  come  up  for  debate,  a  question  to  which 
the  majority  is  opposed,  and  from  which  the  workingman 
shrinks,  is  this.] 

EXERCISE  48 
Correct  the  following  sentences  :  — 

I.  He  proposed  a  glass  of  soda  water,  to  which  I  assented. 
2.  The  Merrimac  having  been  stripped  of  everything  except 
her  machinery,  two  torpedoes  were  placed  under  her  hull, 
which  would  sink  the  ship.  3.  Here  were  long  planks, 
placed  across  horses,  which  were  used  as  mess-tables.  4.  A 
few  years  ago  I  had  from  fifty  to  sixty  men  working  for  me 
and  now  I  have  only  ten,  which  shows  the  falling  off  of  trade. 
5.  His  wife  had  a  deadly  fear  of  snakes,  which  no  persuasion 
could  diminish.  6.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  University 
should  have  more  land.  They  should  buy  the  next  block. 
7.  For  a  family  such  as  was  that  of  Dr.  Primrose  to  come 
down  to  almost  nothing  and  yet  keep  up  their  pride  and 
spirits,  is  incredible.  8.  Again  while  blockading  harbors 
she  was  frequently  called  upon  to  defend  herself  against 
forts  and  gunboats,  which  she  always  did  gallantly.  9.  No 
semblance  of  a  slip  occurred  in  the  case  of  any  one  of  us, 
though  had  it  occurred  the  worst  consequences  could  hardly 
have  been  avoided.  10.  Once  raised  to  the  dizzy  height 
of  absolute  power,  the  use  that  w^as  made  of  it  depended 
solely  on  the  character  of  the  emperor. 

105.  False  Connection:  Participles. — As  the  adjective 
form  of  the  verb,  the  participle  must  modify  a  noun 
or  its  equivalent.  A  participial  phrase  or  clause  is 
thus  connected  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  the 
participle.  Incoherence  may  occur  in  the  following 
ways :  — 

(i)  The  participle  may  not  modify  grammatically 


CHAP,  viii]  The  Sentence  147 

the  noun  or  pronoun  which  it  should  modify  accord- 
ing to  the  sense.     See  §  53  (3). 

(2)  The  nominative  absolute  with  a  participle  is 
sometimes  used  in  English,  with  the  force  of  a  causal 
clause,^  but  it  is  not  nearly  so  common  as  in  Latin, 
and  should  be  used  sparingly.  It  is  particularly 
awkward  when  it  follows  the  principal  clause ;  e.g, 
*'  My  teachers  in  this  new  school  were  first-class 
instructors,  two  having  had  a  call  within  the  last  two 
years  to  teach  in  colleges." 

106.  False  Connection :  Conjunctions.  —  In  no  way 
can  the  sense  or  structure  of  a  sentence  be  made  more 
incoherent  than  by  an  indefinite  use  of  connectives. 
The  pupil  should  make  sure,  especially  in  complex 
sentences,  that  the  relations  between  the  clauses  are 
clearly  indicated.  He  should  be  particularly  on  his 
guard  against  the  careless  use  of  the  relative  adverb 
so?  So  is  properly  used  to  introduce  a  clause  of 
result ;  e.g,  ''  I  sent  him  word  early  so  [or  so  that'] 
he  could  get  away  in  time."  It  is  also  sometimes 
used,  especially  in  conversation,  with  the  force  of 
''  consequently  " ;  e.g.  ''  I  did  not  find  him,  so  I  went 

1  For  example,  "  The  sun  having  long  since  sunk  in  the  west,  we 
returned  hastily  home." 

2  While  is  too  often  loosely  used.  It  is  certainly  best  used  to 
indicate  that  two  processes  are  going  on  at  the  same  time;  e.g.  "I 
will  do  this  while  you  are  doing  that."  It  may  also  have  the  sense  of 
"although";  e.g.  ^^ while  I  believe  you,  I  can  scarcely  realize  that  you 
are  telling  the  truth."  It  is  least  well  used  when  it  is  merely  equiva- 
lent to  "  and  "  or  "  but,"  or  when  it  may  be  omitted  without  changing 
the  sense;  e.g.  "Olivia  was  boisterous,  while  Sophia  was  quiet  and 
reserved." 


143  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  viii 

on."  But  there  is  so  strong  a  feeling  that  so  is 
loosely  used  when  it  does  not  plainly  introduce  a 
clause  of  result  that  careful  writers  regularly  avoid 
it  in  the  construction  illustrated  above,  preferring 
*'  As  [or  since~\  I  did  not  find  him,  I  went  on.*' 

EXERCISE   49 

Correct  the  incoherence  of  the  following  sen- 
tences ^ :  — 

I.  In  both  countries  the  law  of  society  demands  that 
only  a  few  be  permitted  to  prosper  while  the  great  "  other 
half"  must  struggle  for  a  mere  existence.  2.  In  reply  to 
your  letter  of  the  27th  in  regard  to  roast  beef,  we  first 
began  packing  it  twenty-five  years  ago.  3.  Answering 
your  question  in  regard  to  foreign  ingredients  and  scraps 
being  used  in  putting  up  this  meat,  will  say  that  we  used 
nothing  but  good,  wholesome,  sound  beef.  4.  This  as- 
sured her  that  she  was  being  watched,  so  very  slowly  she 
left  the  room.  5.  In  the  cities  all  is  uncertainty,  therefore 
money  is  not  invested,  and  business  is  not  transacted,  so 
men  have  no  work.  6.  The  "  gym "  proper  is  on  the 
ground  floor,  taking  up  half  the  oval ;  the  other  half  being 
given  up  to  dressing  rooms.  7.  One  afternoon,  while  walk- 
ing along  a  business  avenue,  my  attention  was  attracted  by  a 
crowd.  8.  The  time  is  short,  so  I  will  confine  myself  entirely 
to  important  matters.  9.  The  chief  opinion  among  news- 
paper editors  was  that  the  bill  was  harmful  to  the  press, 
while  politicians  thought  it  would  benefit  the  public.  10.  He 
had  been  employed  to  assist  in  arranging  the  house  for  it's 
mistress  and  had  contrived  this  hiding-place  for  the  pur- 

1  To  do  this  it  will  sometimes  be  necessary  to  make  the  structure 
parallel  (see  §  88),  or  to  recast  the  thought  in  two  or  more  sentences. 


CHAP,  viii]  The  Sentence  149 

pose  of  rifling  my  aunt's  strong  box  when  everybody  in  the 
house    should   be    asleep,    having   secreted   himself    there. 

11.  The  school  is  easy  of  access,  being  near  to  the  station. 

12.  Having  been  informed  that  the  Spanish  fleet  was  hug- 
ging the  coast  of  Spain,  and  that  a  large  army  was  to  be 
sent  to  Cuba,  it  became  th?  Admiral's  duty  to  return  to 
Havana.  13.  After  his  marriage  to  my  aunt  he  gradually 
dwindled  away,  my  aunt's  mind  being  too  much  for  him. 
14.  The  athletic  grounds  being  several  miles  distant  is  a 
great  drawback.  15.  The  result  aimed  at  not  only  was  to 
make  England  the  manufacturing  centre  of  the  world,  but 
also  that  these  products  should  be  carried  in  EngUsh  ships. 
16.  The  principal  products  which  their  ships  brought  to 
England  were  timber,  tallow,  and  hides,  from  the  Baltic 
regions,  and  from  Norway  they  brought  pitch  and  fish. 

107.  Summary.  — What  has  been  said  in  this  chap- 
ter may  be  summarized  thus.  A  well-constructed 
sentence  must  have  the  f  ollov^ing  characteristics  :  — 

(i)  Its  parts,  when  taken^Jogether,  must  express  one, 
and  only  one,  idea  (Unity) . 

(2)  Its  parts  must  be  so  arranged  that  the  important  parts 
will  stand  in  prominent  places  (Emphasis). 

(3)  Its  parts  must  be  so  shaped  and  arranged  that  their 
relation  to  each  other,  both  in  form  and  in  sense,  is  perfectly 
clear  (Coherence). 

EXERCISE  50  (Review) 

Correct  or  improve  the  following  sentences  :  — 

I.  She  Hved  alone  in  the  House  of  the  Seven  Gables, 
with  small  means  and  having  too  much  pride  to  accept 
assistance.  2.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  company  will 
appear  in  many  new  places  next  season  with  the  exception 
of  a  new  cover  and  a  few  additions,  there  is  little  change 


ISO  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  viii 

from  the  pamphlet  used  during  last  season.  3.  The  psalms 
of  David  breathe  forth  the  sweetest  spirit  of  antiquity;  but 
go  to  the  opera  and  see  what  men  have  lowered  music  to. 
4.  After  having  visited  all  the  publishers  in  the  city,  who 
each  in  turn  told  him  that  his  poem  was  not  worth  pub- 
lishing, in  a  manner  which  was  far  from  being  polite,  so  he 
had  to  do  it  himself.  5.  When  once  people  begin  to  say, 
"  to-morrow  will  do,"  they  are  very  apt  to  forget  it  or  have 
something  happen  to  prevent  them  on  the  other  days,  and 
it  is  not  necessary  to  show  to  every  upright  man  in  the 
state  that  this  election  is  one  of  momentous  importance 
and  it  is  their  duty  to  register,  for  they  cannot  vote  without 
doing  it.  6.  I  suggest  three  essentials  for  a  rhetoric  course. 
All  can  be  easily  instituted.  A  competent  instructor,  a  one- 
hour  course,  and  consultations  on  essays.  7.  Still  the  end 
sought  cannot  be  reached  until  efficient  teachers  are  found, 
as  rules  and  regulations  are  only  one  third,  the  teacher 
may  be  considered  another  third,  and  the  student  the 
remaining  third  in  the  process  of  education.  8.  Nothing 
happened  of  importance  after  that,  until  nearly  two  months 
later.  Then  the  battles  of  San  Juan  Hill  and  El  Caney,  the 
great  naval  victory  of  Santiago  and  finally  the  capture  of  San- 
tiago itself.  9.  We  went  to  the  fire  down  the  street  in  the 
old  store  next  to  the  Gardner  house  that  has  been  empty 
so  long,  but  everything  was  quiet  again  by  the  time  we  got 
there  and  we  had  to  come  home,  which  was  just  what  we 
might  have  expected,  for  it's  always  our  luck.  10.  It 
should  be  known  that  the  limits  of  the  Paris  Exposition 
grounds  are  fixed  by  inflexible  boundaries — streets,  avenues, 
boulevards,  business  houses  and  private  residences  —  and 
are  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  city,  thus  making  it  impos- 
sible to  extend  the  grounds  in  order  to  secure  more  space 
with  which  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  a  foreign  country,  so 
that  the  additional  allotment  of  space  made  to  the  United 


CHAP,  viii]  The  Sentence  151 

States  —  after  the  whole  amount  had  been  apportioned 
out  to  the  various  nations  of  the  earth  —  required  more 
than  an  ordinary  effort  upon  the  part  of  the  French  expo- 
sition authorities,  and  demonstrates  their  generosity  and 
good  feeling  toward  us  as  a  nation.  11.  The  first  two 
named  only  went  to  the  top  :  the  others  remained  below. 

12.  He  not  only  lent  me  his  carriage,  but  also  his  horses. 

13.  A  few  individuals  have  headed  the  movement  from  the 
first  and  given  it  consistency  and  dignity,  among  whom  I 
can  mention  none  more  influential  than  our  honored  presi- 
dent. 14.  He  often  recalled  the  first  time  that  he  drove 
over  this  beautiful  country  with  his  wife  who  has  since  gone 
to  heaven  in  a  buggy.  15.  I  studied  the  lives  of  these 
authors  and  the  works  of  each,  but  spending  most  of  my 
time  on  Milton  and  Shakespeare.  16.  I  remember  seeing 
him  in  i860  when  he  was  a  mere  child  and  that  even  then 
his  pecuhar  characteristics  were  already  well  developed. 
17.  And  we  respectfully  request  Ladies  and  Gentlemen 
intending  to  purchase  to  allow  us  the  privilege  of  trying  on 
a  pair ;  to  see  and  feel  this  shoe  upon  the  foot,  is  to  make 
a  customer  for  us.  18.  Henry  Smith,  attorney  for  the  Mer- 
rimac  valley  navigation  company,  stated  in  behalf  of  that 
company  the  objections  to  the  proposed  buoy,  and  the 
construction  of  a  fender  pier  was  strenuously  advocated  by 
him. 


152  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  ix 


CHAPTER    IX 

WORDS:  VOCABULARY 

108.  Plan  of  Procedure.  — 109.  The  Extent  of  the  English 
Vocabulary.— 110.  The  Individual  Vocabulary.  — 111.  How 
TO  Increase  the  Individual  Vocabulary. —  Exercise  51. 

108.  Plan  of  Procedure.  —  Now  that  we  have  seen 
how  words  are  arranged  in  sentences,  we  must 
notice  what  kinds  of  words  are  most  serviceable. 

109.  The  Extent  of  the  English  Vocabulary.  —  We 
have  already  seen  the  dangers  attending  the  use  of 
words  that  are  not,  strictly  speaking,  English  words, 
and  the  use  of  words  in  senses  not  properly  English. 
But  other  points  about  words  still  remain  to  be  con- 
sidered. Granted  that  all  our  words  are  English  and 
are  used  in  proper  English  senses,  what  sort  of  words 
shall  we  use,  —  of  what  words  shall  our  vocabularies 
consist }  English  has,  by  the  accidents  of  history, 
a  total  vocabulary  of  more  than  three  hundred  thou- 
sand words.  To  the  primitive  Anglo-Saxon  of  our 
Germanic  ancestors  were  first  added,  by  slow  degrees, 
words  from  the  Celtic,  the  Danish,  and  the  Latin. 
The  conquest  of  England  by  the  Normans — Scan- 
dinavians who  spoke  French  —  resulted  in  the  addi- 
tion of  a  large  French  vocabulary  to  the  homely 
treasures  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  tongue  —  and  created 


CHAP,  ix]  Words:    Vocabulary  153 

our  English  language.  And  then,  as  civilization 
grew,  and  as  knowledge  of  antiquity  and  intercourse 
with  other  nations  increased,  came  new  ideas  and 
experiences,  new  arts  and  sciences,  and.  a  multitude 
of  new  words  from  Latin  and  Greek,  as  well  as  from 
Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  Dutch,  Hebrew,  Arabic, 
Hindustani,  Persian,  Malay,  and  other  languages. 
With  a  vocabulary  so  large  and  rich  as  that  of  Eng- 
lish, what  are  we  to  do }  In  this  chaos  of  strange 
and  familiar  words,  how  are  we  to  pick  and  choose  1 

110.  The  Extent  of  the  Individual  Vocabulary. — 
When  we  examine  the  situation,  however,  we  find 
that  no  one  knows  or  uses  all  these  three  hundred 
thousand  words,  any  more  than  he  knows  or  makes 
friends  with  all  the  people  in  the  city  where  he  lives. 
Even  Shakspere's  vocabulary  had  not  more  than 
fifteen  thousand  words,  and  that  of  Milton,  and  that 
of  the  English  Bible,  is  each  less  than  seven  thousand. 
We  need  not  be  ambitious,  then,  to  know  or  use  all  the 
words  in  the  dictionary.  What  we  should  try  to  do  is 
to  increase  our  vocabularies  until  they  are  adequate  to 
our  needs ;  and  that,  it  is  to  be  feared,  they  are  not 
now.  Communication  of  some  sort  can  be  carried 
on  with  even  a  very  small  number  of  words.  A 
foreigner  may  manage  to  make  known  his  ordinary 
wants  with  scarcely  more  than  a  hundred  ;  the  average 
vocabulary  of  the  Italian  opera  is  said  to  be  less  than 
a  thousand.  But  a  small  stock  of  words  is  a  cruel 
limitation  on  one's  thinking,  and  especially  on  one's 
talking  or  writing.     To  have  only  a  few  words  at  our 


154  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  ix 

command  means  that  we  have  curtailed  ourselves  in 
much  that  makes  life  worth  living,  —  in  freshness 
and  keenness  of  sensation,  and  in  breadth  and  depth 
of  thought.  The  difference  between  a  wide-awake, 
energetic  man,  with  an  acute,  well-disciplined  mind, 
and  a  dull  or  stupid  man,  is  largely  due  to  a  state  of 
mind  of  which  the  best  sign  is  a  limited  or  hackneyed 
vocabulary.  The  dull  man  does  not  discriminate; 
he  lumps  a  dozen  things  together  under  one  name : 
all  things  which  are  at  all  alike  are  to  him  exactly 
ahke.  He  does  not  trouble  himself  to  distinguish 
among  them.  Nice,  fifte,  good,  for  instance,  do  duty 
for  a  score  of  adjectives  with  more  special  meanings. 

111.  How  to  Increase  the  Individual  Vocabulary.  — 
The  following  advice  will  aid  students  in  enlarging 
their  vocabularies :  — 

(i)  If  possible,  get  a  sound  elementary  knowledge 
of  Latin,  not  only  because  the  study  of  Latin  trains 
the  mind,  but  because  Latin  is  the  basis  on  which 
a  large  number  of  important  English  words  is  formed. 

(2)  Use  new  words,  even  if  it  takes  an  effort  to  do 
so,  until  they  become  familiar  to  you. 

(3)  Read  as  much  as  you  can  in  good  English 
authors  of  all  kinds.  Read  carefully ;  do  not  skip  or 
pass  lightly  over  words  the  meanings  of  which  you 
only  half  know  or  do  not  know  at  all. 

(4)  In  all  your  writing  try  to  express  yourselves 
exactly ;  realize  what  it  is  which  you  want  to  express, 
and  do  not  be  satisfied  until  you  have  found  the  word 
or  words  that  express  your  meaning  adequately. 


CHAP,  ix]  Words:    Vocabulary  155 

(5)  Beware  of  using  the  same  words  too  constantly. 
A  hackneyed  vocabulary,  or  the  careless  and  unneces- 
sary repetition  of  a  word  in  a  single  sentence  or  in 
several  successive  sentences,  detracts  greatly  from  the 
force  of  what  you  write. 

(6)  Write  frequently.  It  is  by  use  that  a  vocabu- 
lary grows  rich  and  keeps  vigorous. 

(7)  Have  a  good  dictionary  by  you  and  use  it  fre- 
quently.^ 

EXERCISE  51 

I.  Read  carefully  the  following  passage,  under- 
scoring the  words  with  which  you  are  not  so  familiar 
as  to  use  them  naturally.  Make  sure  of  the  meaning 
of  these  words,  and  construct  sentences  which  will 
illustrate  their  use. 

"Although  as  boys  we  had  been  even  intimate  associates, 
yet  I  really  knew  little  of  my  friend.  His  reserve  had  been 
always  excessive  and  habitual.  I  was  aware,  however,  that 
his  very  ancient  family  had  been  noted,  time  out  of  mind, 

^  Worcester'^ s  Dictionary,  the  International,  the  Century,  and  the 
Standard  are  the  best  English  dictionaries  for .  ordinary  use,  and  at 
least  one  of  them  should  be  accessible  in  every  school  library.  The 
Century  has  the  advantage  of  giving  a  number  of  examples  under  each 
word,  illustrating  the  precise  sense  which  usage  gives  to  it.  This  plan 
is  followed  much  more  elaborately  in  the  largest  and  best  dictionary  of 
the  language,  the  New  English  Dictionary .  The  great  size  of  this 
work,  which  after  many  years  of  labor  still  remains  incomplete,  pre- 
vents it  from  being  used  largely  by  younger  students,  but  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  teachers  will  see  that  their  school  libraries  and  town  libra- 
ries possess  it,  and  from  time  to  time  refer  pupils  to  it,  with  a  view  to 
giving  them  a  clear  idea  of  the  extent  and  variety  of  the  English 
vocabulary,  and  the  numerous  shades  of  meaning  to  which  usage  gives 
authority. 


156  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  ix 

for  a  peculiar  sensibility  of  temperament,  displaying  itself, 
through  long  ages,  in  many  works  of  exalted  art,  and  mani- 
fested of  late  in  repeated  deeds  of  munificent  yet  unobtru- 
sive charity,  as  well  as  in  a  passionate  devotion  to  the 
intricacies,  perhaps  even  more  than  to  the  orthodox  and 
easily  recognizable  beauties,  of  musical  science.  I  had 
learned,  too,  the  very  remarkable  fact  that  the  stem  of  the 
Usher  race,  all  time-honored  as  it  was,  had  put  forth  at  no 
period  any  enduring  branch  ;  in  other  words,  that  the  entire 
family  lay  in  the  direct  line  of  descent,  and  had  always,  with 
very  trifling  and  very  temporary  variation,  so  lain.  It  was 
this  deficiency,  I  considered,  while  running  over  in  though*- 
the  perfect  keeping  of  the  character  of  the  premises  with 
the  accredited  character  of  the  people,  and  while  speculating 
upon  the  possible  influence  which  the  one,  in  the  long  lapse 
of  centuries,  might  have  exercised  upon  the  other  —  it  was 
this  deficiency,  perhaps,  of  collateral  issue,  and  the  conse- 
quent undeviating  transmission  from  sire  to  son  of  the  patri- 
mony with  the  name,  which  had,  at  length,  so  identified  the 
two  as  to  merge  the  original  title  of  the  estate  in  the  quaint 
and  equivocal  appellation  of  the  *  House  of  Usher'  —  an 
appellation  which  seemed  to  include,  in  the  minds  of  the 
peasantry  who  used  it,  both  the  family  and  the  family 
mansion."  —  Poe  :    The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher. 

11.  Criticise  the  vocabulary  of  the  following  pas- 
sages :  — 

{d)  "The  wind  even  took  up  the  sand  and  gravel,  and 
carried  it  away  with  the  snow.  On  the  side  it  piled  up  the 
snow  till  the  houses  were  almost  covered  up.  No  one 
ventured  out,  even  on  snow-shoes ;  but  the  wind  came  in 
where  it  could,  and  sifted  in  the  fine  snow  about  windows 
and  under  doors  :  and  the  snow  that  came  down  the  chim- 
neys melted  and  stained  the  walls." 


CHAP,  ix]  Words:    Vocabulary  157 

(b)  "The  next  step  is  to  put  this  photograph  into  words. 
Care  should  be  used  in  the  selection  of  words.  A  few  well- 
selected,  expressive  words  are  a  great  deal  more  valuable  in 
description  than  two  or  three  pages  of  words  that  are  not 
forcible,  and  not  characteristic  of  the  subject." 

(<r)  It  is  not  of  that  class  of  writing  that  finds  a  lasting 
place  in  literature  that  I  am  speaking,  for  that  is  attainable 
by  few  among  us;  but  of  writing  that,  while  not  necessarily 
possessing  an  elegant  and  artistic  literary  finish,  is  neverthe- 
less capable  of  conveying  to  its  readers  in  a  straightforward 
and  simple  manner  the  idea  that  we  wish  them  to  grasp. 

III.  Choose  at  random  a  page  from  an  unabridged 
dictionary,  and  notice  (i)  how  many  of  the  words 
there  defined  you  know  the  meaning  of,  and  (2)  how 
many  you  actually  use  in  speech  or  composition. 


158  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  x 


CHAPTER   X 

WORDS:   TOO  MANY;  TOO  FEW 

112.  Too  Many  Words.  — 113.  How  to  Secure  Compactness.— 
114.  Too  Few  Words.  — 115.  The  Scale  of  Composition.— 
Exercise  52.  — Exercise  53. 

112.  Too  Many  Words.  —  One  of  the  most  important 
principles  of  rhetoric  is  also  one  of  the  most  obvious  : 
we  should  not  use  more  words  than  those  which 
express  our  meaning  adequately.  Obvious  as  it  is, 
this  principle  is  one  of  the  hardest  to  put  into  prac- 
tice. The  habit  of  writing  compactly,  of  going 
straight  to  the  point,  of  saying  just  what  one  has  to 
say  and  then  of  stopping,  is  not  easy  to  acquire. 
The  opposite  and  more  frequent  habit,  the  vice  of 
using  too  many  words,  usually  appears  in  one  of 
three  forms :  — 

(i)  Useless  repetition  of  an  idea,  as  in  the  following 
sentence,  "  Hence  the  universal  testimony  which  all 
the  nations  of  the  earth  have  conspired  to  give  to 
some  few  works  of  genius."  Here  the  relative  clause 
merely  repeats  the  idea  of  universal. 

(2)  Useless  words,  which,  though  not  repeating  any 
preceding  thought,  add  nothing  to  the  sense.  For 
example,  (/z)  can,  by  the  omission  of  superfluous 
words,  be  reduced  to  (b). 


CHAP,  x]       Words:    Too  Many ;    Too  Few  159 

{a)  One  hundred  dentists  sat  in  Berkeley  Hall  last  night 
and  listened  to  a  paper  by  Dr.  Smith  on  the  subject  of  the 
development  of  the  enamel  in  the  teeth. 

{b)  In  Berkeley  Hall  last  night  Dr.  Smith  lectured  to 
one  hundred  dentists  on  the  development  of  the  enamel. 

(3)  Useless  details^  or  prolixity.  Prolixity  is 
most  easily  illustrated  by  the  rambling  story,  in 
which  unnecessary  facts  obscure  the  real  point. 

113.  How  to  Secure  Compactness.  — Compactness  in 
writing  is  to  be  secured  chiefly  by  keeping  upper- 
most in  mind  the  precise  point  which  the  writer 
wishes  to  make.^  To  this  end,  any  piece  of  writing 
should  be  carefully  planned,  so  as  to  avoid  useless 
detours.  Economy  of  time  for  both  the  reader  and 
the  writer  demands  that  the  writer  should  stick 
closely  to  his  point,  and  should  reach  it  by  simple 
and  natural  steps.  If  prolixity  can  be  avoided,  mere 
wordiness  can  be  easily  dealt  with  by  the  combined 
efforts  of   the  teacher  and   the  pupil.     When,  how- 

1  The  following  verses  from  the  Atlanta   Constitution  contain  the 
proper  dogma  in  a  somewhat  unconventional  form :  — 
"  When  you've  got  a  thing  to  say, 
Say  it !     Don't  take  half  a  day. 
When  your  tale's  got  little  in  it, 
Crowd  the  whole  thing  in  a  minute. 
Life  is  short  —  a  fleeting  vapor; 
Don't  you  fill  the  whole  blamed  paper 
With  a  tale  which,  at  a  pinch, 
Could  be  cornered  in  an  inch ! 
Boil  her  down  until  she  simmers; 
Polish  her  until  she  glimmers. 
When  you've  got  a  thing  to  say, 
Say  it !     Don't  take  half  a  day. " 


i6o  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  x 

ever,  a  theme  is  prolix,  the  best  thing  to  do  with  it  is 
to  destroy  it.     Correction  will  not  help  it  much. 

114.  Too  Few  Words.  —  Young  writers  are  often  as 
likely  to  use  too  few  words  as  too  many.  It  is  not, 
of  course,  sufficient  to  state  what  you  mean  in  a  bare, 
disconnected  fashion ;  you  must  be  sure  that  your 
reader  understands  you  fully,  and  for  that  purpose 
you  must  add,  by  way  of  explanation,  illustration,  or 
expansion,  whatever  details  are  necessary  to  make 
your  whole  meaning  quite  clear.  "  Brevity,"  said  an 
old  and  experienced  lawyer,  "  is  sometimes  overrated. 
The  number  of  a  man's  words  should  be  like  the 
length  of  a  blanket,  —  enough  to  cover  the  bed  and 
to  tuck  in  besides." 

In  the  following  examples  (a)  represents  a  state- 
ment of  fact  so  incomplete  that  its  bearing  is  not 
easily  seen ;  {b)  is  the  same  statement  in  an  expanded 
and  more  comprehensible  form  :  — 

{a)  "  President  Eliot  has  entered  upon  a  crusade,  which, 
I  think,  is  a  step  in  the  right  direction.  He  proposes  that 
certain  of  the  languages  be  commenced  before  entering  the 
high  school,  so  that  on  entering  college  one  will  have  fin- 
ished all  preHminary  work  on  them." 

(<^)  "  President  Eliot  has  started  a  movement  which  is,  I 
think,  in  the  right  direction.  He  has  proposed,  in  a  recent 
article  and  in  several  addresses  before  educational  bodies, 
that  the  pupil  should  begin  the  study  of  one  or  perhaps  two 
foreign  languages — French,  German,  Latin,  or  Greek  —  in 
the  grammar  school,  at  least  a  year  before  entering  the  high 
school.  By  the  time  he  enters  the  high  school,  then,  the 
student  will  have  finished  much  of  the  elementary  work  in 


CHAP,  x]       Words:    Too  Many ;    Too  Few  i6i 

the  languages  which  he,  or  his  parents  for  him,  shall  have 
chosen.  Before  he  leaves  the  high  school  he  will,  under 
this  system,  have  obtained  such  a  mastery  over  them  as  to 
read  them,  to  understand  them  when  spoken,  and  to  express 
himself,  to  a  certain  degree,  in  them." 

115.  The  Scale  of  Composition.  —  Faults  with  re- 
gard to  the  number  of  v^ords  are  often  caused  by 
failure  to  notice  the  scale  on  which  a  piece  of  writing 
is  to  be  done.  The  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  can  be 
described  in  a  sentence  or  in  ten  thousand  words. 
In  treating  any  subject  it  is  important  that  we  should 
notice  the  physical  limits  of  our  work,  that  is,  to  what 
space  we  are  restricted.  With  these  limits  in  mind  it 
is  usually  not  difficult  to  decide  into  how  much  detail 
it  is  necessary  to  go  in  any  given  part  of  our  essay. 

EXERCISE  52 

Rewrite  the  following  passages  in  fewer  words :  — 

I.  What  the  outcome  of  the  Peace  Conference  will  be  is 
as  yet  a  matter  of  doubtful  conjecture,  but  one  thing  is  sure, 
and  that  is  that  the  conference  will  gain  time  for  the  Czar. 

2.  England  has  been  acknowledged  for  the  past  four  or  five 
centuries  to  be  the  ruler  of  the  ocean,  the  greatest  naval 
power  in   the  world ;    and  indeed  this  seems   to   be  true. 

3.  After  long  weeks  of  waiting,  after  many  nights  passed  in 
sleepless  watchfulness,  the  Spanish  fleet  finally  steamed  forth 
on  a  day  in  the  early  part  of  July  when  the  sun  was  sending 
down  his  rays  with   all  the  fierceness  of  a  tropic  cHmate. 

4.  The  Confederacy  had  been  very  successful  in  its  warfare 
on  the  sea,  and  with  the  introduction  of  the  Merrimac  it 
had  almost   turned  the  fortunes  of  the  South   against  the 


1 62  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  x 

North.  Hitherto  all  the  vessels  of  both  sides  had  been 
made  of  wood  with  no  protection  against  shot  or  shell. 
But  when  the  Merriniac  was  turned  out  with  its  protecting 
coat  of  iron,  it  was  well-nigh  invincible,  and  none  of  the 
ordinary  wooden  war-ships  had  any  chance  against  it.  It 
destroyed  some  of  the  North's  finest  vessels,  and  every  one 
trembled  at  what  it  might  do.  5.  The  Hbrary  owns  many 
costly  and  valuable  works  which  are  not  shown  except  by 
special  permission.  6.  On  February  15,  1898,  while  our 
battle-ship  Maine  was  anchored  in  Havana  harbor,  it  was 
blown  up  and  destroyed,  and  nearly  two  hundred  and  fifty 
sailors  and  men  on  board  lost  their  lives.  7.  Prior  to 
Burke's  speech  for  many  years  the  American  people  had 
resented  and  objected  to  many  bills  which  the  English 
Parliament  had  passed  relative  to  the  American  colonies, 
until  it  reached  its  culminating  point  in  revolution  and  the 
loss  to  England  of  the  American  colonies.  The  Navigation 
Act,  the  Stamp  Act,  the  tax  on  tea,  the  Boston  Port  Bill, 
and  lastly  the  quartering  of  troops  in  America,  irritated  and 
aroused  the  people  to  the  sense  of  their  wrongs,  until, 
pressed  and  oppressed  beyond  all  endurance,  they  revolted, 
and  after  years  of  struggle  won  their  independence.  8.  This 
defeat  ruined  the  Spanish  power,  and  from  this  time  it 
steadily  dechned.  9.  Ellsworth  climbed  to  the  tower  or 
roof  and  captured  the  flag,  and  the  men  proceeded  down 
the  stairs,  when  they  met  on  the  landing  the  owner  of  the 
flag,  who,  without  a  word  of  warning,  shot  Ellsworth  dead 
through  the  heart  with  a  shot-gun  which  he  carried  in  his 
hand.  Thus  in  the  very  beginning  of  what  promised  to  be 
a  glorious  fife  Ellsworth  was  cut  off  in  the  prime  and  health 
of  manhood.  10.  On  the  other  hand,  the  firing  of  the 
guns  of  the  Constitution  was  excellent,  and  almost  every 
shot  took  effect.  The  masts  of  the  Guerriere  were  in  a 
tottering  condition,  and  some  of  them  fell,  dragging   the 


CHAP,  x]       Words:    Too  Many ;    Too  Few  163 

Guerriere  up,  so  that  she  came  alongside  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, II.  Finally,  when  the  smoke  had  at  last  cleared, 
and  the  roar  of  the  cannon  had  ceased,  and  the  terrible 
silence,  broken  only  by  the  lapping  of  the  waves  and  groans 
of  dying  men,  seemed  to  enwrap  everything,  the  fleet  of  the 
Spaniards,  once  so  proud  and  mighty,  lay  scattered  along 
the  rock-strewn  beach,  with  their  sides  rent  with  gaping 
holes,  dismantled,  and  smoking  where  the  American  shells 
had  ignited  their  woodwork. 

EXERCISE  53 

Increase  the  number  of  words  in  the  follov^ing  pas- 
sages until  the  thought  is  adequately  expressed  :  — 

[Suggestions.  —  i.  The  short  statements  seem  unrelated  : 
supply  connections  and  amplifying  phrases  to  show  that  the 
colonies  were  ready  for  freedom  because  (a)  they  no  longer 
needed  the  protection  of  England,  which  had  been  neces- 
sary in  time  of  war;  and  {b)  England  had  neglected  to 
maintain  strong  royal  authority,  and  had  permitted  popular 
government.  2.  Show  that  in  1775  it  was  necessary  to 
decide  on  a  policy  of  colonial  government  (sentences  i  and 
2);  and  prepare  for  the  statement  of  Burke's  attitude  by 
telling  what  alternatives  were  presented.  3.  What  is  meant 
by  "  rather  condensed  "  ?  What  connection  is  there  between 
the  brevity  of  the  prescribed  sonnet-form  and  the  kinds 
of  themes  for  which  it  is  most  used?  4.  We  are  not  told' 
that  the  Spanish  Armada  leaves  the  English  coast.  Make 
less  abrupt  transition  to  "the  harbor  of  Calais."  5.  Show 
the  relation  of  the  parenthetical  clause  to  the  assertion. 
6.  Show  fully  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect  existing  be- 
tween the  conditions  of  imprisonment  and  the  death  of 
the  prisoners.  7.  Where  were  the  fortifications  built,  and 
why  did  Colonel  Prescott  stop  to  build  them  on  Bunker 


164  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  x 

[Breed's]  Hill?  These  questions  occur  to  one  who  reads 
the  paragraph.  8.  Make  definite  the  inference  that  the 
retention  of  the  same  ministers  in  office  for  so  long  a  time 
shows  their  great  influence  over  the  king.] 

I.  The  colonies  were  in  a  state  ripe  for  freedom.  The 
French  and  Indian  Wars  were  over.  The  colonies  felt  no 
need  of  England  for  protection.  They  had  been  neglected 
by    England.      Their    governments   were    chiefly   popular. 

2.  Burke's  speech  was  given  to  the  English  Parliament  in 
the  year  1775.  The  time  had  come  when  some  govern- 
ment must  be  decided  upon  for  the  colonies,  and  Burke 
did  his  best  to  persuade  Parhament  toward  reconciliation. 

3.  The  sonnet  is  a  short  poem  consisting  of  one  stanza  of 
fourteen  Hues.  It  is  usually  rather  condensed,  on  account 
of  its  definite  Hmits.  It  is  often  used  for  subjective  poetry, 
and  is  useless  for  any  narrative.  4.  The  fleet  was  first 
sighted  from  the  English  coast  on  July  19,  1588.  The 
English  ships  sent  out  to  intercept  the  Spanish  vessels  were 
so  much  lighter  and  smaller  that  they  would  get  around  a 
large  Spanish  ship  like  a  flock  of  king- birds  around  an  eagle, 
and  after  destroying  her  would  go  after  another.  And  so  it 
continued  for  some  time,  the  Spaniards  sustaining  severe 
losses.  Then  when  the  Spanish  fleet  was  in  the  harbor  of 
Calais,  the  English  sent  fire-ships  against  it,  and  almost 
destroyed  it.  5.  The  subject  on  which  he  was  going  to 
speak  was  a  very  important  one  —  it  was  just  a  week  before 
the  battle  of  Lexington  —  as  the  American  colonies  were 
very  valuable  possessions.  6.  His  orders  were  carried  out. 
The  poor  men  were  thrown  into  a  dungeon  about  forty  feet 
square.  The  windows  were  small ;  it  was  the  height  of  the 
Indian  summer ;  and  when  the  guards  came  back  in  the 
morning  only  twenty-three  prisoners  out  of  one  hundred 
and  forty- three  were  left  alive.  7.  On  his  way  to  Charles- 
town,  Colonel  Prescott  came  to  a  hill,  called  Bunker  Hill, 


CHAP,  x]       Words:    Too  Many ;    Too  Few  165 

which  sloped  down  gently  to  the  south.  All  that  night,  and 
till  eleven  the  next  day,  he  kept  his  men  at  work  building 
fortifications.  8.  George  III.  was  really  king  only  in  name, 
for  he  was  ruled  by  his  ministers.  .He  had  had  six  min- 
isters in  office  twenty  years. 


1 66  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xi 


CHAPTER    XI 

KINDS    OF    WORDS 

116.  Long  Words  and  Short  Words.  — 117.  Anglo-Saxon 
Words  and  Latin  Words.  — 118.  The  Anglo-Saxon  Ele- 
ment IN  English.  —  119.  The  Latin  Element  in  English. — 
120.  The  Choice  between  the  Two  Elements.  — Exercise 
54.  — 121.  Simple  Words  and  Affected  Words.  —  Exercise  55. 
—  122.  Specific  or  Definite  Words.  — Exercise  56. 

116.  Long  Words  and  Short  Words.  —  Long  words 
should  not  be  used  because  they  are  long  words,  nor 
short  words  merely  because  they  are  short.  If  the 
word  you  want  to  express  your  meaning  exactly  is  a 
long  word,  use  it,  but  do  not  hunt  for  long  and  pom- 
pous words.  As  a  rule,  say  what  you  have  to  say  as 
simply  as  possible,  preferring,  for  the  sake  of  brevity, 
short  words  to  long  words. 

Notice,  for  instance,  the  simplicity  and  directness 
of  the  following  passage,  an  effect  largely  produced 
by  the  use  of  short  words  :  — 

"  And  when  they  told  it  to  Jotham,  he  went  and  stood  in 
the  top  of  Mount  Gerizim,  and  lifted  up  his  voice,  and  cried, 
and  said  unto  them.  Hearken  unto  me,  ye  men  of  Shechera, 
that  God  may  hearken  unto  you.  The  trees  went  forth  on 
a  time  to  anoint  a  king  over  them;  and  they  said  unto  the 
olive  tree.  Reign  thou  over  us.  But  the  olive  tree  said  unto 
them.  Should  I  leave  my  fatness,  wherewith  by  me  they  honor 
God  and  man,  and  go  to  be  promoted  over  the  trees  ?     And 


CHAP,  xi]  Kinds  of  Words  167 

the  trees  said  to  the  fig  tree,  Come  thou,  and  reign  over  us. 
But  the  fig  tree  said  unto  them,  Should  I  forsake  my  sweet- 
ness, and  my  good  fruit,  and  go  to  be  promoted  over  the 
trees  ?  Then  said  the  trees  unto  the  vine,  Come  thou,  and 
reign  over  us.  And  the  vine  said  unto  them.  Should  I  leave 
my  wine,  which  cheereth  God  and  man,  and  go  to  be  pro- 
moted over  the  trees?  Then  said  all  the  trees  unto  the 
bramble,  Come  thou,  and  reign  over  us.  And  the  bramble 
said  unto  the  trees.  If  in  truth  ye  anoint  me  king  over  you, 
then  come  and  put  your  trust  in  my  shadow  :  and  if  not,  let 
fire  come  out  of  the  bramble,  and  devour  the  cedars  of 
Lebanon."  — Judges  ix.  7-15. 

117.  Anglo-Saxon  Words  and  Latin  Words.  —  Closely 
connected  with  the  difference  in  effect  between  short 
words  and  long  words  is  that  between  words  of 
Anglo-Saxon  origin  and  words  of  Latin  origin.  Of 
the  difference  between  these  two  kinds  of  words  it  is 
essential  that  the  pupil  should  have  a  clear  idea. 

118.  The  Anglo-Saxon  Element  in  English. — The 
original  inhabitants  of  England  belonged  to  the 
Celtic  race,  were  called  Britons,  and  spoke  a  language 
somewhat  like  Welsh.  They  were  conquered  by  the 
Romans,  who  made  Britain  a  province  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  built  roads  and  towns,  and  carried  on  min- 
ing and  a  considerable  commerce.  The  great  bulk 
of  the  Celtic  population,  however,  was  uninfluenced 
by  Roman  civilization,  and  only  slight  traces  of  Latin  ' 
were  left  in  the  British  language.  In  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, when  the  Roman  military  occupation  ceased, 
the  island  relapsed  into  its  previous  condition  of  bar- 
barism, and  was  in  the  course  of  a  century  overrun 


1 68  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xi 

and  conquered  by  three  closely  allied  Low  German 
tribes,  —  the  Jutes,  the  Saxons,  and  the  Angles. 
The  Britons  were  driven  into  the  west  and  north  of 
the  island.  Those  who  remained  under  English  rule 
were  made  slaves.  The  different  dialects  spoken  by 
the  conquering  tribes  then  became  the  language  of 
the  country.  Anglo-Saxon  or  Old  English  is  the 
English  used  before  the  French-speaking  Normans 
conquered  the  island  and  changed  the  language  so 
radically.  It  belongs  to  the  Teutonic  family  of  lan- 
guages and  is  closely  akin  to  the  languages  of  the 
Germans,  Dutch,  and  Scandinavians. 

119.  The  Latin  Element  in  English.  —  The  Norman 
conquerors  of  England  (eleventh  century)  were  Scan- 
dinavians by  origin,  but  they  had  been  for  a  century 
and  a  half  settled  in  North  France,  had  intermarried 
with  the  people  of  the  country,  and  spoke  a  dialect 
of  the  French  language.  For  a  century  and  more 
after  the  settling  of  the  Normans  in  England,  there 
were  two  languages  spoken  there,  —  French  by  the 
Normans,  English  by  the  native  English  population. 
Gradually,  however,  the  two  parts  of  the  population 
became  less  distinct,  and  the  two  languages  were 
fused  into  one.  The  new  English  which  the  amalga- 
mated population  spoke  we  call  Middle  Enghsh, 
because  it  is  the  second  of  the  three  great  historical 
divisions  of  the  language,  i.e.  Old  Enghsh,  Middle 
English,  and  Modern  Enghsh.  Middle  Enghsh  is 
most  famihar  to  us  through  Chaucer,  who  wrote  in 
the  fourteenth  century,  and  was  the  greatest  writer  of 


CHAP,  xi]  Kinds  of  Words  169 

the  period.  Middle  English  is  distinguished  from 
Old  English  by  the  loss  of  some  of  the  older  forms 
of  inflection  and  by  the  addition  of  a  very  large  num- 
ber of  words  derived  from  the  French.  The  impor- 
tance of  this  last  fact  is  great.  Though  our  language 
is  the  English  language,  there  are  more  words  in  it 
of  foreign  than  of  English  origin.  Many  of  these 
words  come  directly  from  the  Latin,  which  has  had  a 
strong  influence  on  English,  but  an  even  greater  num- 
ber come  to  us  indirectly,  through  the  French,  which, 
on  account  of  the  supremacy  of  the  Normans  and  on 
account  of  the  close  relations  for  centuries  between 
France  and  England,  exercised  a  very  powerful  influ- 
ence on  the  English  vocabulary.  Now,  the  French 
vocabulary  comes,  in  great  measure,  from  the  Latin, 
so  that  the  majority  of  English  words  are  directly  or 
indirectly  of  Latin  origin.  In  such  a  sentence,  for 
instance,  as  "the  majority  of  secondary  schools  do 
not  prepare  pupils  for  entrance  to  college,"  majority, 
secondary,  schools,  prepare,  pupils,  entrance,  college,  all 
come,  directly  or  indirectly,  from  the  Latin.  The 
smaller  words,  however,  such  as  we  use  in  almost 
every  sentence  we  make,  —  the,  for,  that,  and,  but, 
for  instance,  —  as  well  as  a  large  number  of  our  com- 
mon, homely  words,  are  of  native  origin.  In  the  line, 
"  It  was  the  schooner  Hesperus  that  sailed  the  wintry 
sea,"  for  example,  all  the  words,  except  Hesperus,  are 
native  English  words. 

120.  The  Choice  between  the  Two  Elements.  —  There 
is  a  prevalent  theory  that  we  should  as  far  as  pos- 


I/O  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xi 

sible  use  words  of  Anglo-Saxon  rather  than  of  Latin 
origin.  The  former  are,  as  a  rule,  short,  homely, 
common  words,  and  are  especially  appropriate  in 
simple  writing,  that  deals  with  plain,  tangible  mat- 
ters. The  latter  are  frequently  longer,  less  homely 
in  their  associations,  and  are  peculiarly  adapted  to 
elaborate  or  precise  distinctions  of  thought.  Neither 
class  should  be  used  to  excess,  and  neither  can  be 
neglected. 

The  pecuhar  effect  of  simpHcity  and  strength  that 
comes  from  the  use  of  Anglo-Saxon  words  is  perhaps 
best  shown  by  the  following  extract  from  Bunyan's 
Pilgrim  s  Progress^  in  which  by  far  the  greater  part 
of  the  words  are  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin :  — 

"  Then  said  Christian  to  his  fellow,  *  Now  I  call  to  remem- 
brance that  which  was  told  me  of  a  thing  that  happened  to 
a  good  man  hereabout.  The  name  of  the  man  was  Little- 
faith,  but  a  good  man,^  and  he  dwelt  in  the  town  of  Sincere. 
The  thing  was  this  :  At  the  entering  in  at  this  passage,  there 
comes  down  from  Broad-way  Gate  a  lane  called  Dead  Man's 
Lane,  —  so  called  because  of  the  murders  that  are  com- 
monly done  there ;  and  this  Little-faith,  going  on  pilgrimage, 
as  we  do  now,  chanced  to  sit  down  there,  and  slept.  Now 
there  happened,  at  that  time,  to  come  down  the  lane,  from 
Broad-way  Gate,  three  sturdy  rogues,  and  their  names  were 
Faint-heart,  Mistrust,  and  Guilt  (three  brothers),  and  they, 
espying  Little-faith  where  he  was,  came  galloping  up  with 
full  speed.  Now  the  good  man  was  just  awake  from  his 
sleep,  and.  was  getting  up  to  go  on  his  journey.  So  they 
came  up  all  to  him,  and  with  threatening  language  bid  him 
stand.  At  this  Little-faith  looked  as  white  as  a  clout,  and 
1  We  should  write  nowadays,  "  but  he  was  a  good  man,"  etc. 


CHAP,  xi]  Kinds  of  Words  171 

had  neither  power  to  fight  or  fly.^  Then  said  Faint-heart, 
Deliver  thy  purse.  But  he  making  no  haste  to  do  it^  (for 
he  was  loth  to  lose  his  money),  Mistrust  ran  up  to  him, 
and  thrusting  his  hand  into  his  pocket,  pulled  out  thence  a 
bag  of  silver.  Then  he^  cried  out,  Thieves  1  Thieves  ! 
With  that  Guilt,  with  a  great  club  that  was  in  his  hand, 
struck  Little-faith  on  the  head,  and  with  that  blow  felled 
him  flat  to  the  ground,  where  he  lay  bleeding  as  one  that 
would  bleed  to  death.  All  this  while  the  thieves  stood  by. 
But,  at  last,  they  hearing^  that  some  were  upon  the  road, 
and  fearing  lest  it  should  be  one  Great-grace,  that  dwells  in 
the  city  of  Good-confidence,  they  betook  themselves  to 
their  heels,  and  left  this  good  man  to  shift  for  himself. 
Now,  after  a  while,  Little-faith  came  to  himself,  and,  getting 
up,  made  shift  to  scrabble  on  his  way.  This  was  the 
story.'"  —  BUNYAN  :   Pilgrim' s  Progress. 

The  opposite  effect,  an  effect  of  dignity  and 
grandeur,  is  illustrated  by  the  passage  from  Poe 
quoted  on  pages  155,  156.  The  long  v^ords  there 
employed  are  mostly  v^ords  of  Latin  origin,  as  indeed 
are  most  of  the  long  words  in  our  language.  A 
happy  balance  between  these  two  effects,  —  both  of 
which  are  secured,  as  we  have  seen,  by  the  use  of 
different  parts  of  the  Enghsh  vocabulary,  —  may  be 
seen  in  the  passage  quoted  on  page  124.  It  is  such 
a  vocabulary,  containing  both  the  vigorous  Anglo- 
Saxon  words  and  the  more  sonorous  Latin  words, 
that  the  student  is  advised  to  acquire. 

1  "  Power  neither  to  fight  nor  fly." 

2  This  construction  is  now  rarely  used.     See  p.  147. 
^  The  pronoun  is  ambiguous. 

*  See  note  2,  above. 


1/2  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xi 

EXERCISE   54 

I.  With  the  assistance  of  the  teacher,  find  the 
words  of  Latin  origin  in  the  following  passage.  Can 
you  think  of  any  words  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin  that 
are  nearly  synonymous } 

'^  But  the  fierce  old  hag  began  to  get  angry  and  show  a 
glimpse  of  her  diabolic  nature  (like  a  snake's  head,  peeping 
with  a  hiss  out  of  her  bosom),  at  this  pusillanimous  behavior 
of  the  thing  which  she  had  taken  the  trouble  to  put  together. 

" '  Puff  away,  wretch  ! '  cried  she,  wrathfully.  '  Puff,  puff, 
puff,  thou  thing  of  straw  and  emptiness  !  thou  rag  or  two  ! 
thou  meal  bag  !  thou  pumpkin  head  !  thou  nothing  !  Where 
shall  I  find  a  name  vile  enough  to  call  thee  by?  Puff,  I  say, 
and  suck  in  thy  fantastic  life  along  with  the  smoke ;  else  I 
snatch  the  pipe  from  thy  mouth  and  hurl  thee  where  that 
red  coal  came  from.'  "  —  Hawthorne:  Feathertop. 

II.  Chose  ten  common  names  of  tools  or  farm 
implements.  Are  they  of  Latin  or  Anglo-Saxon 
origin  1  Are  the  names  of  the  parts  of  speech  of 
Latin  or  Anglo-Saxon  origin  }     Why } 

121.  Simple  Words  and  Affected  Words.  —  A  frequent 
vice  of  young  or  untrained  writers  is  that  sometimes 
technically  known  as  "fine  writing,"  that  is,  the 
habit  of  writing  about  plain  matters  in  an  affected 
manner.  It  has  its  roots  in  a  mistaken  idea  that  in 
order  to  produce  any  impression  we  must  write  with 
great  solemnity  or  pomposity.  The  following  extract 
from  Lowell's  preface  to  the  Bigloiv  Papers  will  give 
the  best  idea  of  what  ''fine  writing"  is,  how  common 
it  is,  and  how  absurd  it  is  :  — 


CHAP.  Xl] 


Kinds  of  Words 


173 


"  It  had  long  seemed  to  me  that  the  great  vice  of  American 
writing  and  speaking  was  a  studied  want  of  simplicity,  that 
we  were  in  danger  of  coming  to  look  on  our  mother-tongue 
as  a  dead  language,  to  be  sought  in  the  grammar  and 
dictionary  rather  than  in  the  heart.  .  .  .  While  the  school- 
master has  been  busy  starching  our  language  and  smoothing 
it  flat  with  the  mangle  of  a  supposed  classical  authority,  the 
newspaper  reporter  has  been  doing  even  more  harm  by 
stretching  and  swelling  it  to  suit  his  occasions.  A  dozen 
years  ago  I  began  a  list,  which  I  have  added  to  from  time  to 
time,  of  some  of  the  changes  which  may  be  fairly  laid  at  his 
door.  I  give  a  few  of  them  as  showing  their  tendency,  all 
the  more  dangerous  that  their  effect,  like  that  of  some 
poisons,  is  insensibly  cumulative,  and  that  they  are  sure  at 
last  of  effect  among  a  people  whose  chief  reading  is  the 
daily  paper.  I  give  in  two  columns  the  old  style  and  its 
modern  equivalent. 


Old  Stvle 
Was  hanged. 

When  the  halter  was  put 
round  his  neck. 


A  great  crowd  came  to  see. 

Great  fire. 
The  fire  spread. 

House  burned. 

The  fire  was  got  under. 

Man  fell. 


New  Style 

Was  launched  into  eter- 
nity. 

When  the  fatal  noose  was 
adjusted  about  the  neck  of 
the  unfortunate  victim  of  his 
own  unbridled  passions. 

A  vast  concourse  was  as- 
sembled to  witness. 

Disastrous  conflagration. 

The  conflagration  extended 
its  devastating  career. 

Edifice  consumed. 

The  progress  of  the  de- 
vouring element  was  arrested. 

Individual  was  precipi- 
tated. 


174 


Elements  of  Rhetoric 


[chap.  XI 


The  frightened  horse. 
Sent  for  the  doctor. 


The  mayor  of  the  city  in 
a  short  speech  welcomed. 


A    horse   and   wagon    ran  A  valuable  horse  attached 

against.  to  a  vehicle  driven  by  J.  S., 

in  the  employment  of  J.  B., 
collided  with. 

The  infuriated  animal. 

Called  into  requisition  the 
services  of  the  family  physi- 
cian. 

The  chief  magistrate  of  the 
metropolis,  in  well-chosen 
and  eloquent  language,  fre- 
quently interrupted  by  the 
plaudits  of  the  surging  multi- 
tude, officially  tendered  the 
hospitalities. 

I  shall,  with  your  permis- 
sion, beg  leave  to  offer  some 
brief  observations. 

Commenced  his  rejoinder. 

Tendered  him  a  banquet. 

One  of  those  omnipresent 
characters  who,  as  if  in  pur- 
suance of  some  previous  ar- 
rangement, are  certain  to  be 
encountered  in  the  vicinity 
when  an  accident  occurs, 
ventured  the  suggestion. 
He  died.  He   deceased,  he   passed 

out  of  existence,  his  spirit 
quitted  its  earthly  habitation, 
winged  its  way  to  eternity, 
shook  off  its  burden,  etc." 

This  list  of  Lowell's,  drawn  up  many  years  ago, 
still  holds  good ;  the  fault  he  ridicules  is  still  preva- 


I  shall  say  a  few  words. 


Began  his  answer. 
Asked  him  to  dine. 
A  bystander  advised. 


CHAP,  xi]  Kinds  of  Words  175 

lent,    and  is  especially  characteristic   of   the   lower 
grades  of  American  speech  and  composition. 

EXERCISE   55 

What  are  the  equivalents  in  plain  English  of  the 
following  passages  ? 

1.  "'I  am  under  the  impression,'  said  Mr.  Micawher, 
'  that  your  peregrinations  in  this  metropolis  have  not  as  yet 
been  extensive,  and  that  you  might  have  some  difficulty  in 
penetrating  the  arcana  of  the  Modern  Babylon  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  City  Road  —  in  short,'  said  Mr.  Micawber,  in 
another  burst  of  confidence,  '  that  you  might  lose  yourself. 
—  I  shall  be  happy  to  call  this  evening,  and  instal  you  in 
the  knowledge  of  the  nearest  way.' " 

2.  Ex- Prize  Fighter  John  L.  SulHvan,  at  present  posing 
before  the  dazzHng  footlights  as  one  of  the  heroes  in  an 
interesting  dramatic  performance,  was  tendered  a  reception 
in  the  City  of  Shoes  last  night  that  ought  to  make  him  a 
pronounced  success  in  the  dramatic  world. 

3.  Tremont  Temple  was  filled  from  gallery  to  platform 
yesterday  with  all  the  pedagogues  of  Middlesex  County. 

4.  Cheer  after  cheer  rent  the  air  as  the  Republican 
nominee,  the  successful  aspirant  for  Senatorial  honors, 
ascended  the  platform  and,  with  his  face  wreathed  in  smiles, 
bowed  his  acknowledgments. 

5 .  Her  lithe,  willowy  figure,  mirror-like  eyes,  and  ivory 
teeth,  together  with  her  profusely  luxuriant,  deep  auburn 
tresses,  made  her  a  pretty  Juliet,  and  secured  her  a  grand 
ovation. 

6.  Those  present  were  mostly  prominent  business  gen- 
tlemen, who  all  say  that  they  had  an  elegant  time.  Previous 
to  the  festivities  the  band  discoursed  sweet  music.  The 
exercises  themselves  finished  as  they  had  commenced,  with 


1 7^  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xi 

a  collation  and  a  brief  performance  in  the  shape  of  blue  fire 
and  roman  candles. 

7.  In  Nevvburyport,  the  place  of  his  nativity,  he  engaged 
in  commerce,  erected  a  residence,  and  attained  a  high 
degree  of  popularity  among  his  fellow-townsmen. 

8.  As  the  bright  portion  of  the  moon  diminished,  those 
who  could  view  the  spectacle  from  an  elevation  could  per- 
ceive the  waters  of  the  bay,  that  glittered  so  gayly  in  the 
earlier  evening,  assume  a  darker  hue,  the  lights  of  the  city 
shine  out  more  brightly,  and  the  faint  stars  that  had  shrunk 
from  sight  in  the  presence  of  the  queenly  moon,  now 
sparkle  as  if  pleased  at  their  unexpected  opportunity. 

9.  Tremont  Temple  presented  yesterday  afternoon  a 
wonderful  scene,  filled  as  it  was,  with  an  immense  audience 
of  men  and  women,  gathered  to  hear  Lady  Henry  Somerset, 
the  flower  of  England's  Christian  womanhood,  preach  to 
the  great  dual  convention  of  the  World's  and  the  National 
Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union  its  annual  sermon. 

10.  "The  representatives  of  the  Republicans  of  the 
United  States,  assembled  in  general  convention  on  the 
shores  of  the  Mississippi  River,  the  everlasting  bond  of  an 
indestructible  republic,  whose  most  glorious  chapter  of 
history  is  the  record  of  the  Republican  party,  congratulate 
their  countrymen  on  the  majestic  march  of  the  nation 
under  the  banners  inscribed  with  the  principles  of  our 
platform  in  1888,  vindicated  by  victory  at  the  polls,  and 
prosperity  in  our  fields,  workshops,  and  mines,  and  make 
the  following  declaration  of  principles."  ^ 

11.  The  bar-room  of  the  Commercial  Hotel  at  an  early 

1  Contrast  the  above,  from  a  rhetorical  point  of  view,  with  the  fol- 
lowing :  "  The  representatives  of  the  Democratic  party  of  the  United 
States,  in  National  Convention  assembled,  do  reaffirm  their  allegiance 
to  the  principles  of  the  party  as  formulated  by  Jefferson,  and  exempli- 
fied by  the  long  and  illustrious  line  of  his  successors  in  Democratic? 
leadership  from  Madison  to  Cleveland." 


CHAP,  xi]  Kinds  of  Words  177 

hour  yesterday  morning  was  enlivened  by  as  animated  an 
event  known  as  a  "  scrap  "  as  has  occurred  in  some  time. 
One  of  the  participants  appreciated  at  the  finish  that  a 
lemon-squeezer  was  a  great  deal  harder  than  his  head, 
which  was  generously  cut,  while  the  wielder  of  the  acidulous 
weapon  paid  for  amusing  himself  with  it  by  getting  adorned 
with  a  pair  of  woe-hued  optics.  The  other  casualties  were  un- 
important, and  no  police  court  vengeance  has  been  invoked. 

122.  Specific  or  Definite  Words.  —  Words  relating 
to  a  large  class  of  objects,  e.g.  bird,  horse,  are  some- 
times called  generic  or  general  (from  the  Latin, 
genus).  Words  relating  to  a  single  object  or  to  a 
comparatively  small  class  of  objects,  e.g.  robin,  my 
canary  bird  Peter,  colt,  the  old  g7'ay  mare,  are  called 
specific  (Latin,  species).  It  should  be  noticed  that 
writing  is  more  vivid  when  specific  words  are  used, 
for  then  the  mind  is  furnished  with  a  more  definite 
picture.  The  difference  between  general  and  specific 
terms  is  thus  the  same,  at  bottom,  as  that  between  an 
essay  dealing  with  an  abstract  principle,  e.g.  with  the 
theory  of  evolution,  and  a  novel  dealing  with  particu- 
lar persons  and  events.  The  more  definite  writing  is, 
up  to  a  certain  point,  the  more  it  is,  as  a  rule,  likely 
to  be  understood  and  remembered. 

Notice,  for  instance,  the  following  description  :  — 

"  A  great  roofless  palace  crowned  the  hill,  and  the  marble 
of  the  courtyards  and  the  fountains  was  split  and  stained 
with  red  and  green,  and  the  very  cobblestones  in  the  court- 
yards where  the  king's  elephants  used  to  live  had  been 
thrust  up  and  apart  by  grass  and  young  trees.  From  the 
palace  you  could  see  the  rows  and  rows  of  roofless  houses 


178  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xi 

that  made  up  the  city,  looking  like  empty  honeycombs  filled 
with  blackness ;  the  shapeless  block  of  stone  that  had  been 
an  idol  in  the  square  where  four  roads  met ;  the  pits  and 
dimples  at  street  corners  where  the  pubHc  wells  once  stood, 
and  the  shattered  domes  of  the  temples  with  wild  figs 
sprouting  on  their  sides."  —  Kipling:   The  Jungle  Book. 

Change  the  specific  terms  here  to  general  terms,  — 
change  roofless  to  half -demolished^  hill  to  elevation^ 
marble  to  stone ^  etc.,  and  you  will  notice  how  much 
the  passage  has  lost  in  vividness. 

EXERCISE  56 

I.  Compare,  in  point  of  effectiveness,  the  two  de- 
scriptions following.  Note  that  both  mention  sub- 
stantially the  same  features  of  the  scene. 

1 .  A  great  number  of  bearded  men,  in  dark  garments  and 
old-fashioned  hats,  intermixed  with  women,  some  bare- 
headed and  others  covered,  was  assembled  in  front  of  a 
wooden  edifice  which  had  a  heavy  door  of  wood  and  metal. 

2.  A  throng  of  bearded  men,  in  sad-colored  garments, 
and  gray,  steeple-crowned  hats,  intermixed  with  women, 
some  wearing  hoods  and  some  bareheaded,  was  assembled 
in  front  of  a  wooden  edifice,  the  door  of  which  was  heavily 
timbered  with  oak,  and  studded  with  iron  spikes. 

II.  Substitute  general  terms  for  the  specific  nouns 
and  verbs  italicized.  What  is  the  effect }  Are  there 
other  specific  words  in  this  passage  .^ 

*^  Sand-strewn  caverns,  cool  and  deep. 
Where  the  winds  are  all  asleep ; 
Where  the  spent  lights  quiver  and  gleam, 
Where  the  salt  weed  sways  in  the  stream, 


CHAP,  xi]  Kinds  of  Words  y'jc^ 

Where  the  sea-beasts,  ranged  all  round, 
Feed  in  the  ooze  of  their  pasture-ground ; 
Where  the  sea-snakes  coil  and  twine, 
Dry  their  mail  and  bask  in  the  brine  ; 
Where  great  whales  come  sailing  by, 
Sail  and  sail,  with  unshut  eye. 
Round  the  world  for  ever  and  aye." 

—  Arnold  :    The  Forsaken  Merman, 

III.  Point  out  the  specific  words  in  the  following 
descriptions.  Try  to  analyze,  as  far  as  possible,  their 
effect. 

I.  "The  sun  was  going  down  on  the  Carquinez  woods. 
The  few  shafts  of  sunlight  that  had  pierced  their  pillared 
gloom  were  lost  in  unfathomable  depths,  or  splintered  their 
ineffectual  lances  on  the  enormous  trunks  of  the  redwoods. 
For  a  time  the  dull  red  of  their  vast  columns,  and  the  dull 
red  of  their  cast-off  bark  which  matted  the  echoless  aisles, 
still  seemed  to  hold  a  faint  glow  of  the  dying  day.  But 
even  this  soon  passed.  Sight  and  color  fled  upwards.  The 
dark  interlaced  tree-tops,  that  had  all  day  made  an  impene- 
trable shade,  broke  into  fire  here  and  there  ;  their  last  spires 
glittered,  faded,  and  went  utterly  out.  A  weird  twilight 
that  did  not  come  from  the  outer  world,  but  seemed  born  of 
the  wood  itself,  slowly  filled  and  possessed  the  aisles.  The 
straight,  tall,  colossal  trunks  rose  dimly  hke  columns  of  up- 
ward smoke.  The  few  fallen  trees  stretched  their  huge 
length  into  obscurity,  and  seemed  to  lie  on  shadowy  trestles. 
The  strange  breath  that  filled  these  mysterious  vaults  had 
neither  coldness  nor  moisture  ;  a  dry,  fragrant  dust  arose 
from  the  noiseless  foot  that  trod  their  bark-strewn  floor ; 
the  aisles  might  have  been  tombs,  the  fallen  trees  enormous 
mummies ;  the  silence  the  solitude  of  a  forgotten  past." 
—  Bret  Harte  :  In  the  Carquinez    Woods. 


i8o  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xi 

2.  "The  charmed  sunset  lingered  low  adown 

In  the  red  west :  thro'  mountain-clefts  the  dale 
Was  seen  far  mland,  and  the  yellow  down 
Bordered  with  palm,  and  many  a  winding  vale 
And  meadow,  set  with  slender  galingale : 
A  land  where  all  things  always  seemed  the  same !  " 
—  Tennyson  :    The  Lotus- Eaters. 

IV.  Give  five  specific  terms  that  fall  under  each 
of  the  general  terms  given  below  :  ^  — 

Sound  ;  ship  ;  country  ;  fiction  ;  airt. 

V.  Rewrite  the  following  sentences,  using  specific 
terms  instead  of  general :  — 

I.  The  animal  came  toward  him  from  the  woods.  2.  Some 
forms  of  art  were  helped  by  the  spirit  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury.    3.  People  went  into  the  building. 

VI.  Select  from  your  own  reading  several  pas- 
sages in  which  specific  terms  are  used  effectively, 
and  one  passage  or  more  in  which  general  terms  are 
used  with  better  effect  than  specific  words  would 
have. 

1  For  example,  light :  gleam,  twinkle,  flash,  glare,  glow. 


CHAP,  xii]  Paragraphs  l8l 


CHAPTER   XII 

PARAGRAPHS 

123.  Plan  of  Procedure. —  124.  The  Importance  of  the  Para- 
graph.—125.  The  Paragraph  by  Itself.  — 126.  Unity,  Em- 
phasis, AND  Coherence.  — 127.  Unity.— 128.  The  Test  of 
Unity.  — Exercise  57.  — 129.  Emphasis. —  130.  The  Topic  Sen- 
tence.—131.  The  Summary  Sentence.  — 132.  The  Develop- 
ment OF  THE  Paragraph.  — Exercise  58.  — 133.  Coherence.-. 
134.  Coherence:  the  Plan.  — 135.  Coherence:  Sequence.— 
136.  Coherence:  Connectives.  — 137.  Lack  of  Coherence: 
Connectives.  — Exercise  59. 

123.  Plan  of  Procedure.  —  We  have  now  seen  the 
necessity  of  choosing  satisfactory  words  and  the 
necessity  of  combining  them  into  correct  and  pleasing 
sentences.  It  remains  for  us  to  learn  how  sentences 
may  be  combined  into  paragraphs,  and  paragraphs 
into  longer  compositions.  The  word,  the  sentence, 
the  paragraph,  and  the  whole  composition  may  be 
properly  regarded  as  an  ascending  series.  A  sentence 
combines  words;  a  paragraph,  sentences ;  and  a  whole 
composition,  paragraphs. 

124.  The  Importance  of  the  Paragraph.  —  From  one 
point  of  view,  a  paragraph  is  a  group  of  sentences  in 
which  a  single  topic  is  developed.  But  as  a  para- 
graph"Ts^  usually  one  of  a  series  of  paragraphs, 
together  constituting  a  whole  composition,  it  is,  from 
another  point  of  view,  a  logical  division  of  a  larger 


1 82  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xii 

topic,  treated  separately.  When  we  see  a  paragraph, 
therefore,  we  suppose  that  the  sentences  in  it  are 
placed  together  because  we  can  thus  best  understand 
and  appreciate  the  logical  development  of  the  author's 
thought. 

125.  The  Paragraph  by  Itself . — We  shall  see  later 
(Chapter  XIII)  what  principles  govern  the  paragraph 
when  it  is  a  logical  part  of  a  larger  piece  of  writing. 
We  are  now  concerned  with  the  paragraph  standing 
by  itself.  If  we  turn  to  the  editorial  page  of  a  good 
newspaper,  we  shall  see  that  there  are  several  short 
articles  there  of  a  paragraph  each.  These  one-para- 
graph editorials  will  serve  as  good  examples  of  para- 
graphs complete  in  themselves.  They  are  really 
little  essays.  Each  has  as  its  basis  a  single  definite 
idea,  and  this  idea,  omitting  all  unnecessary  details, 
it  expresses  in  not  more  than  two  hundred  words 
or  so.  The  idea  thus  expressed  must  be  a 
simple  one,  —  a  single  point,  in  fact,  which  the 
writer  thus  impresses  clearly  on  the  reader's  mind. 
If  we  compare  these  one-paragraph  editorials  with 
the  more  important  editorials,  or  "leaders,"  which 
consist  usually  of  several  paragraphs,  we  shall  under- 
stand how  important  it  is  that  larger  ideas,  or  ideas 
involving  several  "  points,"  each  of  which  needs 
separate  explanation  or  discussion,  should  be  ex- 
pressed in  a  series  of  paragraphs  rather  than  in  a 
single  paragraph.  At  this  stage  in  his  training  it  is 
necessary  that,  so  far  as  possible,  the  student  should 
confine  his  compositions  to  single  paragraphs,  each 


CHAP,  xii]  Paragraphs  183 

complete  in  itself,  trying  in  each  to  make  one  point 
and,  one  point  alone,  and  to  make  that  point  so  clear 
and  striking  that  one  cannot  help  understanding  its 
meaning  and  appreciating  its  force. ^ 

126.  Unity,  Emphasis,  and  Coherence.  —  In  discussing 
the  arrangement  of  words  in  a  sentence,  we  made  use 
of  three  principles  of  composition,  —  unity,  emphasis, 
and  coherence.  These  three  principles  apply  equally 
well  to  the  paragraph,  or,  indeed,  to  any  piece  of 
writing  which  may  be  considered  as  complete  in 
itself.  Unity  demands  that  words  be  so  arranged  as 
to  express  a  single  idea;  emphasis,  that  they  be  so 
arranged  as  to  give  prominence  to  the  more  important 
parts  of  the  idea ;  coherence,  that  they  be  so  arranged 
that  their  mutual  relations  can  be  clearly  and  quickly 
recognized.  In  other  words,  every  piece  of  good 
writing  must  centre  about  a  single  point  (unity);  that 
point  must  stand  out  clearly  (emphasis);  all  the 
necessary  details  bearing  on  the  point  must  be  so 
arranged  and  bound  together  that  they  shall  form  a 
chain,  as  it  were,  of  thought  (coherence). 

127.  Unity.  —  Unity  demands  that  a  paragraph 
express  a  single  idea. 

Examples :  — 

(a)  "  It  is  evident  that  the  United  States  Government  does 
not  intend  to  let  the  claim  against  Turkey  fall  into  abeyance 
through  lack  of  energy.  Another  despatch  has  been  sent 
to  our  Minister  at  Constantinople,  asking  him  to  urge  more 

1  After  studying  this  section  the  student  should  do  the  writing 
required  in  Exercise  57,  part  I. 


1 84  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xti 

positively  upon  the  Sultan  the  necessity  of  making  a  formal 
and  direct  reply  to  our  request  for  payment.  Meanwhile 
the  Porte  has  again  approached  the  United  States  with  a 
proposition  to  pay  the  J  100,000  indirectly  and  by  a  subter- 
fuge ;  Mr.  Cramp,  the  shipbuilder,  has  been  offered  repair 
contracts  on  two  old  Turkish  warships  at  a  high  price,  with 
the  understanding  that  he  should  pay  the  ^100,000  (or  less) 
claimed  by  those  whose  property  was  destroyed  during  the 
Armenian  riots.  Naturally,  our  Government  altogether  de- 
clines to  sanction  such  a  proceeding ;  in  time  Turkey  may 
learn  that  the  United  States  is  not  concerned  so  much  for 
the  comparatively  small  sum  of  money  involved  as  for  the 
public  acknowledgment  that  American  citizens  have  been 
ill-treated  and  deserve  indemnity  and  reparation." 

—  The  Outlook^  June  2,  1900. 

{U)  '*  The  effect  of  the  news  of  Mafeking's  ^  relief  on  the 
ordinarily  sober,  phlegmatic  Londoners  was  remarkable. 
The  streets  were  instantly  thronged  with  multitudes  waving 
flags,  cheering,  and  singing.  All  night  long  and  the  day 
following  great  crowds  surrounded  and  serenaded  the  royal 
residences  —  Buckingham  Palace,  Marlborough  House,  and 
St.  James's  Palace  —  together  with  Colonel  Baden-Powell's 
residence.  Charterhouse  School,  where  he  was  educated, 
and  the  Mansion  House,  the  official  residence  of  the  Lord 
Mayor.  The  display  of  enthusiasm  was  greater  even  than 
that  which  greeted  the  news  of  the  relief  of  Ladysmith  ;  the 
scenes  were  unprecedented  in  the  annals  of  the  metropolis. 
The  event  was  also  remembered  rehgiously;  on  Saturday  a 
solemn  Te  Deum  service  was  held  at  St.  Paul's  Cathedral, 
and  on  Sunday  the  national  anthem  and  hymns  of  thanks- 
giving were  sung  in  every  church." 

—  The  Outlooky  May  26,  1903. 

1  See  page  36. 


CHAP,  xii]  Paragraphs  iSj 

{c)  "  It  was  a  burning  hot  day.  Yan  was  wandering  in 
pursuit  of  birds  among  the  endless  groves  and  glades  of  the 
Sandhill  wilderness  about  Carberry.  The  water  in  the 
numerous  marshy  ponds  was  warm  with  the  sun  heat,  so  Yan 
cut  across  to  the  trail  spring,  the  only  place  in  the  country 
where  he  might  find  a  cooling  drink.  As  he  stooped  beside 
it,  his  eye  fell  on  a  small  hoof-mark  in  the  mud,  a  sharp  and 
elegant  track.  He  had  never  seen  one  like  it  before,  but  it 
gave  him  a  thrill,  for  he  knew  at  once  it  was  the  track  of  a 
wild  deer." 

—  Seton-Thompson,  The  Trail  of  the  Sandhill  Stag. 

The  first  example  treats  of  a  demand  made  on 
Turkey  by  the  United  States ;  the  second,  of  the 
enthusiasm  in  England  at  the  relief  of  Mafeking ; 
the  third,  of  a  boy's  first  sight  of  a  deer's  track.  The 
first  and  second  examples  are  one-paragraph  edito- 
rials.    All  treat  a  single  idea  with  great  definiteness. 

128.  The  Test  of  Unity.  —  A  paragraph  has  unity^ 
as  a  rule,  if  it  can  be  summed  up  in  a  single  sentence. 
The  paragraphs  quoted  in  the  preceding  section,  for 
instance,  can  be  summed  up  as  follows :  — 

(<^)  This  is  the  status  of  the  claim  of  the  United  States 
against  Turkey. 

(b)  The  relief  of  Mafeking  was  thus  enthusiastically  cele- 
brated in  London. 

{c)  Under  such  circumstances  the  young  hunter  first  saw 
the  track  of  a  deer. 

It  will  be  found  impossible,  or  at  least  exceedingly 
difficult,  to  sum  up  any  of  the  following  paragraphs 
in  a  single  sentence  :  — 

(i)  "Of  all  the  uncertain  and  capricious  powers  which 
rule  our  earthly  destiny,  Fortune  is  chief.     Who  has  not 


1 86  Elemejits  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xii 

heard  of  the  poor  being  raised  up,  and  the  rich  being  laid 
low?  Alexander  the  Great  said  he  envied  Diogenes  in  his 
tub,  because  Diogenes  could  have  nothing  less.  We  need 
not  go  far  for  an  instance  of  fortune.  Who  was  so  great  as 
Nicholas,  the  Czar  of  all  the  Russians,  a  year  ago,  and  now 
he  is  fallen,  fallen  from  his  high  estate,  without  a  friend  to 
grace  his  obsequies.  The  Turks  are  the  finest  specimens  of 
the  human  race,  yet  they  too  have  experienced  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  fortune.  Horace  says  that  we  should  wrap  ourselves 
in  our  virtue  when  fortune  changes.  Napoleon,  too,  shows  us 
how  little  we  can  rely  on  fortune  ;  but  his  faults,  great  as  they 
were,  are  being  redeemed  by  his  nephew,  Louis  Napoleon, 
who  has  shown  himself  very  different  from  what  we  expected, 
though  he  has  never  explained  how  he  came  to  swear  to  the 
Constitution,  and  then  mounted  the  imperial  throne.  From 
all  this  it  appears  that  we  should  rely  on  fortune  only  while 
it  remains,  —  recollecting  the  words  of  the  thesis,  Foi-tes 
fortima  adjuvat ;  and  that,  above  all,  we  should  ever  cul- 
tivate those  virtues  which  will  never  fail  us,  and  which  are 
a  sure  basis  of  respectability,  and  will  profit  us  here  and 
hereafter."  ^ 

(2)  A  high-school  education,  to  be  thorough,  must  give 
full  play  to  the  principle  of  election  in  studies.  A  cast-iron 
curriculum  induces  shallowness,  rushing  pupils  from  subject 
to  subject  without  allowing  time  to  master  any.  But  the 
course  must  be  an  elective  system,  not  a  confused  mass. 
Let  each  student's  subjects  be  allied,  so  that  each  may  aid 
the  other  in  training  the  mind.  Again,  an  elective  system 
works  badly  if  the  privilege  is  accorded  to  pupils  before 
they  are  intellectually  of  age.  Then  again  an  elective 
system  of  studies  has  the  great  advantage  of  unity. 

(3)  Front  de  Boeuf's  castle  of  Torquilstone,  not  very  far 

^  A  burlesque  of  a  schoolboy's  theme  on  "  Fortune  Aids  the  Brave  " 
(^Fortes  fortuna  adjuvat),  in  Newman's  Idea  of  a  University. 


CHAP,  xii]  Paragraphs  187 

from  Rotherwood,  was  one  of  the  old  feudal  castles  of  Eng- 
land. It  was  large  and  massive,  and  appeared  to  have  been 
built  more  for  strength  than  beauty.  It  was  flanked  by  high 
walls,  and  at  the  corners  were  large  towers.  Around  the 
castle  was  a  moat  which  could  be  crossed  at  two  places : 
one  at  the  front,  where  there  was  a  portcullis  and  draw- 
bridge, so  general  in  the  castles  of  the  time ;  the  other  at  a 
small  plank  which  crossed  the  moat  at  the  rear  and  could 
easily  be  pulled  across. 

Inside  was  a  large  hall  surrounded  by  several  smaller 
ones.     The  castle  also  had  some  dungeons  for  prisoners. 

(4)  Of  all  Scott's  novels  of  adventure  Ivanhoe  seems  to 
me  to  be  by  far  the  best,  both  in  its  power  to  hold  the 
reader's  attention  and  in  its  accurate  description  of  the 
times. 

A  volume  could  be  written  on  the  good  quahties  of  the 
book,  but  I  will  speak  only  of  one  thing  of  small  impor- 
tance which  struck  me  very  forcibly  in  reading  the  story. 
This  is  the  fitness  of  the  names  which  Scott  gives  his  char- 
acters. Take  Ivanhoe,  for  instance,  the  name  of  the  hero 
of  the  story.  Ivanhoe,  by  its  smoothness,  always  suggests 
to  me  courtesy  and  polished  manners;  by  its  swing,  courage 
and  nobihty. 

Then  Wamba  and  Gurth  suggest  the  jester  and  the 
peasant.  Gurth  sounds  rough  and  harsh,  while  Wamba 
seems  to  me  to  have  a  light,  merry  sound. 

(5)  One  of  the  most  brilliant  engagements  of  the  late  war 
w^as  the  battle  of  San  Juan. 

Here  it  was  that  our  regulars  and  volunteers  alike  exhib- 
ited their  dashing  courage  and  superb  military  discipline. 

After  several  skirmishes  with  the  enemy,  our  troops  had 
advanced  from  Siboney  to  the  foot  of  San  Juan  hill. 

There  they  were  given  a  short  rest,  and,  supphed  with 
three  days'  rations,  they  advanced. 


1 88  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chapt'xi^  —  * 

Killed  and  wounded  fell  on  all  sides,  while  the'^^ea<ily  ^ 
Mauser  rifles  of  die  enemy  condnued  to  belch  forth  their  ^ 
infernal  torrent  of  ste^l ;  the  air  was  filled  with  the  shrieks 
and  groans  of  the  woifnded ;  army  surgeons  and  Red  Gross  ;• 
nurses   flitted  here  and  there ;  and  above  all   this  tumult, 
now  and  again,  sounded  the  mighty  roar  of  the^  dynamite 
gun  in  charge  of  the  Rough  Riders.  /' 

At  length  the  summit  was  reached,  and  our  men  occupied 
the  trenches  which  had  lately  been  filled  with  Spaniardsj 
Our  victory  was  complete.  . 

The  first  of  these  extracts  is  typical  of  the  Va^ 
bling  one-paragraph  composition  which  an  ine:^yCTi- 
enced  or  indolent  writer  may  produce,  3imply  becaus^^ 
he  does  not  force  his  thoughts  to  centre  themselves 
about  a  single  idea.  The  second  represents  a  slightly 
higher  stage  of  accomplishment.  Here  the  writer 
has  a  definite  topic  in  mind,  but  has  no  one  definite 
point  to  make  regarding  it.  The  third  extract,  con- 
stituting a  short  composition  on  Torquilstone,  the 
castle  which  plays  so  large  a  part  in  Scott's  Ivankoe, 
has  unity,  as  a  whole,  for  it  deals  with  that  one  sub- 
ject. The  writer  blunders,  however,  in  not  putting 
all  that  he  writes  into  a  single  paragraph.  It  would 
be  perfectly  possible,  of  course,  to  write  at  length 
about  the  castle,  presenting,  in  various  paragraphs, 
various  points  concerning  it;  but  here  his  one  object 
is  to  give  a  brief  general  description  of  the  castle, 
and  there  is  nothing  to  gain  in  isolating  two  minor 
facts  from  the  main  body  of  that  description.  Simi- 
larly, the  fourth  and  fifth  extracts  should  each  consist 
of  a  single  paragraph. 


CHAP,  xii]  Paragraphs,  189 

EXERCISE  57 

I.  Clip  from  a  good  daily  or  weekly  newspaper  two 
one-paragraph  editorials  of  about  two  hundred  words 
each,  and  one  editorial  of  several  paragraphs.  Write, 
in  a  single  sentence,  below  each  of  the  one-paragraph 
editorials,  what  seems  to  you  the  substance  of  the 
paragraph.  Do  the  same  for  each  of  the  paragraphs 
in  the  longer  editorial. 

II.  Express,  in  single  sentences,  the  thought  of 
each  of  the  following  paragraphs.  Under  each  of 
these  sentences  jot  down  roughly  the  details  which 
the  author  uses  in  treating  the  topic  in  question. 

{a)  "  On  entering  the  amphitheatre,^  new  objects  of  won- 
der presented  themselves.  On  a  level  spot  in  the  centre 
was  a  company  of  odd-looking  personages  playing  at  nine- 
pins. They  were  dressed  in  a  quaint,  outlandish  fashion ; 
some  wore  short  doublets,  others  jerkins,  with  long  knives  in 
their  belts,  and  most  of  them  had  enormous  breeches,  of 
similar  style  with  that  of  the  guide's.  Their  visages,  too, 
were  peculiar ;  one  had  a  large  beard,  broad  face,  and  small 
piggish  eyes ;  the  face  of  another  seemed  to  consist  entirely 
of  nose,  and  was  surmounted  by  a  white  sugar-loaf  hat  set 
off  with  a  little  red  cock's  tail.  They  all  had  beards,  of 
various  shapes  and  colors.  There  was  one  who  seemed  to 
be  the  commander.  He  was  a  stout  old  gentleman,  with 
a  weather-beaten  countenance  ;  he  wore  a  laced  doublet, 
broad  belt  and  hanger,  high-crowned  hat  and  feather,  red 
stockings,  and  high-heeled  shoes,  with  roses  in  them.  The 
whole  group  reminded  Rip  of  the  figures  in  an  old  Flemish 
painting,  in  the  parlor  of  Dominie  Van  Shaick,  the  village 

1  See  page  48  (12). 


190  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xii 

parson,  and  which  ^  had  been  brought  over  from  Holland  at 
the  time  of  the  settlement." —Irving:  Rip  Van  WinkleP- 

(J?)  "  It  was  about  the  time  I  conceiv'd  the  bold  and 
arduous  project  of  arriving  at  moral  perfection.  I  wish'd  to 
live  without  committing  any  fault  at  any  time  ;  I  would  con- 
quer all  that  natural  inclination,  custom,  or  company  might 
lead  me  into.  As  I  knew,  pr  thought  I  knew,  what  was 
right  and  wrong,  I  did  not  see  why  I  might  not  always  do 
the  one  and  avoid  the  other.  But  I  soon  found  I  had  under- 
taken a  task  more  difficult  than  I  had  imagined.  While  my 
care  was  employ'd  in  guarding  against  one  fault,  I  was  often 
surprised  by  another ;  habit  took  the  advantage  of  inatten- 
tion ;  inclination  was  sometimes  too  strong  for  reason.  I 
concluded,  at  length,  that  the  mere  speculative  conviction 
that  it  was  our  interest  to  be  completely  virtuous  was  not 
sufficient  to  prevent  our  slipping;  and  that  the  contrary 
habits  must  be  broken,  and  good  ones  acquired  and  estab- 
lished, before  we  can  have  any  dependence  on  a  steady, 
uniform  rectitude  of  conduct.  For  this  purpose  I  there- 
fore contrived  the  following  method." 

—  Franklin  :  Autobiography. 

{c)  "  I  made  a  htde  book,  in  which  I  allotted  a  page  for 
each  of  the  virtues.  I  rul'd  each  page  with  red  ink,  so  as  to 
have  seven  columns,  one  for  each  day  of  the  week,  marking 
each  column  with  a  letter  for  the  day.  I  cross'd  these  col- 
umns with  thirteen  red  lines,  marking  the  beginning  of  each 
line  with  the  first  letter  of  one  of  the  virtues,  on  which  line, 
and  in  its  proper  column,  I  might  mark,  by  a  little  black 

1  See  §  36  (I). 

2  For  example :  In  the  amphitheatre  Rip  found  a  company  of  odd- 
looking,  quaintly  dressed  people.  The  details  are,  roughly,  these  :  Saw 
odd-looking  people  playing  ninepins.  Quaintly  dressed.  Queer  look- 
ing.    The  commander.     All  looked  like  old  Dutch  paintings. 


\ 


CHAP,  xii]  Paragraphs  191 

spot,  every  fault  I  found  upon  examination  to  have  been 
committed  respecting  the  virtue  upon  that  day." — ibid. 

{d)  *'  Parkman's  descriptions  seem  Hke  the  reports  of  an 
eye-witness.  The  reaHsm  is  so  strong  that  the  author  seems 
to  have  come  in  person  fresh  from  the  scenes  he  describes, 
with  the  smoke  of  the  battle  hovering  about  him  and  its 
fierce  light  glowing  in  his  eyes.  Parkman  did  not  feel  ready 
to  write  until  he  had  visited  nearly  all  the  locahties  that  form 
the  scenery  of  his  story,  and  studied  them  with  the  patience 
of  a  surveyor  and  the  discerning  eye  of  a  landscape  painter. 
His  love  of  nature  added  keen  zest  to  this  sort  of  work.  To 
sleep  under  the  open  sky  was  his  delight,  and  his  books 
fairly  reek  with  the  fragrance  of  pine  woods." 

—  John  Fiske:  Francis  Parhnait. 

{e)  "  Over  all  emotion  he  [the  Indian]  throws  the  veil  of 
an  iron  self-control,  originating  in  a  peculiar  form  of  pride, 
and  fostered  by  rigorous  discipline  from  childhood  Upward. 
He  is  trained  to  conceal  passion,  and  not  to  subdue  it. 
The  inscrutable  warrior  is  aptly  imaged  by  the  hackneyed 
figure  of  a  volcano  covered  with  snow ;  and  no  man  can 
say  when  or  where  the  wild-fire  will  burst  forth.  This  shallow 
self-mastery  serves  to  give  dignity  to  public  deliberation,  and 
harmony  to  social  Hfe.  Wrangling  and  quarrel  are  strangers 
to  an  Indian  dwelling  ;  and  while  an  assembly  of  the  ancient 
Gauls  was  garrulous  as  a  convocation  of  magpies,  a  Roman 
senate  might  have  taken  a  lesson  from  the  grave  solemnity 
of  an  Indian  council.  In  the  midst  of  his  family  and  friends 
he  hides  affections,  by  nature  none  of  the  most  tender,  under 
a  mask  of  icy  coldness ;  and  in  the  torturing  fires  of  his 
enemy  the  haughty  sufferer  maintains  to  the  last  his  look  of 
grim  defiance."  —  Parkman  :   Conspiracy  of  Pontiac. 

III.  Find  five  topics,  each  of  which  can  be  appro- 
priately treated  in  a  single  paragraph.     Indicate  the 


192  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xii 

details  which  you  would  use  in  treating  each  of  these 
topics. 

IV.  Develop,  in  a  single  paragraph,  the  line  of 
thought  indicated  with  regard  to  at  least  one  of  the 
topics  in  \\\} 

129.  Emphasis.  —  In  the  building  of  a  paragraph 
the  principle  of  emphasis  guides  us  in  so  arranging 
sentences  that  what  is  important  in  thought  becomes 
prominent  to  the  eye  or  ear.  The  important  thought 
can  be  made  prominent  in  several  ways :  — 

(i)  By  stating  early  in  the  paragraph,  and  thus 
giving  prominence  to  your  statement,  what  part 
of  your  subject  you  are  to  treat;  i.e,  by  the  topic 
sentence. 

(2)  By  devoting  the  last  sentence  of  a  paragraph 
to  a  statement  of  the  point  of  the  whole  paragraph, 
i.e.  by  the  summary  sentence. 

(3)  By  being  careful  to  give  to  various  details 
their  relative  importance,  i.e.  by  giving  the  main  idea 
its  proper  development. 

130.  The  Topic  Sentence.  —  Nothing  could  be  more 
natural  to  a  thoughtful  writer  than  the  use  of  the 
topic  sentence.  It  furnishes  so  clear  a  guide  to  the 
main  thought  of  a  paragraph  that  one  who  is  consult- 
ing a  chapter  or  essay  for  some  particular  fact  can 
usually,  if  the  paragraphs  are  well  made,  discover  by 
glancing  at  the  beginning  of  a  paragraph  where  to 
find  that  which  he  seeks.     It  is  especially  valuable 

^  It  is  suggested  that  the  pupil  continue  this  exercise  until  he  is 
thoroughly  familiar  with  the  process. 


CHAP,  xii]  Paragraphs  193 

in  writing  that  consists  of  a  single  paragraph,  where 
it  is  absolutely  essential  that,  at  the  very  outset,  the 
reader  should  receive  at  least  a  broad  hint  as  to 
what  he  may  expect  to  find  treated  below.  See,  for 
illustration,  the  extracts  (a)  and  {b)  quoted  in  §  127. 
Examples :  — 

(^)  We  should  probably  be  surprised  if  we  understood 
how  very  little  people  really  know  about  the  Bible  and  what 
is  in  it.  [Topic  Sentence.]  We  deceive  ourselves  regard- 
ing our  own  knowledge.  The  sacred  Book  has  lain  so  long 
on  our  tables,  and  we  are  so  familiar  with  its  outside  look, 
that  we  get  a  vague  idea  that  we  have  read  it.  But  if  we 
really  brought  ourselves  to  the  point,  we  should  be  amazed 
at  our  own  inabiHty  to  tell  even  the  simplest  of  its  stories 
rightly.  And  we  imagine  sometimes  that  all  the  rest  of  the 
world  know  more  about  the  Book  than  we  do ;  but  every 
now  and  then  something  gives  us  a  glimpse  of  what  they  do 
know,  and  we  are  startled  at  the  imperfectness  and  careless- 
ness of  their  knowledge  of  the  richest  and  most  familiar 
and  most  important  Book  in  all  the  world.  There  are  many 
of  you  who  are  eager  for  every  new  book,  who  are  anxious 
if  each  Saturday  night  does  not  find  you  read  up  to  the  line 
of  the  week's  new  literature,  who  probably  never  read  the 
graphic,  briUiant,  stirring  story  of  Saul,  the  first  King  of 
Israel,  in  all  your  lives.  We  circulate  the  Bible  by  the 
million.  Some  parts  of  it  we  read  as  a  religious  duty. 
But  there  are  whole  books  of  it  teeming  with  interest  which 
few  of  us  ever  touch.  One  sometimes  feels  that  some  day 
or  other  a  great  increase  of  the  spiritual  power  of  the  Bible 
will  come  with  what  will  be  almost  a  re-discovery  of  its 
literary  attractiveness.  When  people  break  through  the 
strange  feeling  which  has  gathered  around  it  that  it  is  dull 
and  unreal,  and  find  that  it  is  the  most  interesting  Book  in 


194  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xii 

all  the  world,  then  they  will  be  open  for  its  deeper  power 
to  lay  hold  upon  their  consciences  and  hearts." 

—  Phillips  Brooks  :  Att  Evil  Spirit  froj?i  the  Lord} 

(<^)  "  As  a  lyric  poet,  Shelley,  on  his  own  ground,  is  easily 
great,  [Topic  Sentence.]  Some  of  the  lyrics  are  purely 
personal ;  some,  as  in  the  very  finest,  the  Ode  to  the  West 
Wind,  mingle  together  personal  feehng  and  prophetic  hope 
for  mankind.  Some  are  lyrics  of  pure  nature;  some  are 
dedicated  to  the  rebuke  of  tyranny  and  the  cause  of  liberty ; 
others  belong  to  the  indefinite  passion  he  called  love,  and 
others  are  written  on  visions  of  those  'shapes  that  haunt 
Thought's  wildernesses.'  They  form  together  the  most  sen- 
sitive, the  most  imaginative,  and  the  most  musical,  but 
the  .least  tangible  lyrical  poetry  we  possess." 

—  Stopford  a.  Brooke  :  English.  Literature? 

It  does  not,  of  course,  follow  that  every  paragraph 
must  begin  with  a  topic  sentence.  It  is  indeed 
usually  sufificient,  especially  in  narrative,  for  the  first 
sentence  to  be  of  a  sort  that  will  give  some  clew  to 
what  follows.^ 

1  The  following  are  the  opening  sentences  of  the  two  following 
paragraphs :  — 

(i)  "Saul's  life,  as  it  is  told  to  us  in  the  first  Book  of  Samuel,  is 
the  perfection  of  a  tragedy."  (2)  "The  verse  which  I  have  taken  for 
our  text  this  morning  contains  one  statement  about  this  tragical  history 
of  King  Saul  which  well  deserves  our  study."  These  are  both  topic 
sentences. 

^  The  next  paragraph  begins  with  another  topic  sentence ;  —  "As 
the  poet  of  nature  he  (Shelley)  had  the  same  idea  as  Wordsworth,  that 
nature  was  alive;  but  while  Wordsworth  made  the  active  principle 
which  filled  and  made  nature  to  be  Thought,  Shelley  made  it  Love." 

8  At  this  point  the  pupil  should  do  the  writing  indicated  in  Exercise 
58,  parts  I,  II,  III,  and  IV. 


CHAP,  xii]  Paragraphs  195 

131.  The  Summary  Sentence.  —  The  summary  sen- 
tence is  no  less  natural  or  effective  than  the  topic 
sentence.  If  in  rapid  reading  we  look  at  the  be- 
ginnings of  paragraphs,  to  see  what  they  are  going 
to  be  about,  we  also  look  at  the  ends,  to  see  in  brief 
what  they  contained. 

Examples :  — 

(a)  "  I  should  very  imperfectly  execute  the  task  which 
I  have  undertaken  if  I  were  merely  to  treat  of  battles  and 
sieges,  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  administrations,  of  intrigues  in 
the  palace,  and  of  debates  in  the  parliament.  It  will  be  my 
endeavor  to  relate  the  history  of  the  people  as  well  as  the 
history  of  the  government,  to  trace  the  progress  of  useful 
and  ornamental  arts,  to  describe  the  rise  of  religious  sects 
and  the  changes  of  literary  taste,  to  portray  the  manners  of 
successive  generations,  and  not  to  pass  by,  with  neglect,  even 
the  revolutions  which  have  taken  place  in  dress,  furniture, 
repasts,  and  public  amusements.  I  shall  cheerfully  bear  the 
reproach  of  having  descended  below  the  dignity  of  history  if 
I  can  succeed  in  placing  befo7'e  the  English  of  the  nineteenth 
century  a  true  picture  of  the  life  of  their  ancestors y 

—  Macaulay  :  History  of  England. 

(U)  "  Into  this  federation  our  Saxon  ancestors  were  now 
admitted.  A  regular  communication  was  opened  between 
our  shores  and  that  part  of  Europe  in  which  the  traces  of 
ancient  power  and  policy  were  yet  discernible.  Many  noble 
monuments  which  have  since  been  destroyed  or  defaced  still 
retained  their  pristine  magnificence  ;  and  travellers,  to  whom 
Livy  and  Sallust  were  unintelligible,  might  gain  from  the 
Roman  aqueducts  and  temples  some  faint  notion  of  Roman 
history.  .  .  .  The  islanders  returned,  with  awe  deeply  im- 
pressed on  their  half-opened  minds,  and  told  the  wondering 
inhabitants  of  the  hovels  of  London  and  York  that  near  the 


196  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xii 

grave  of  St.  Peter  a  mighty  race,  now  extinct,  had  piled  up 
buildings  which  would  never  be  dissolved  till  the  Judgment 
Day.  Learning  followed  in  the  train  of  Christianity.  The 
poetry  and  eloquence  of  the  Augustan  age  was  assiduously 
studied  in  Mercian  and  Northumbrian  monasteries.  The 
names  of  Bede  and  Alcuin  were  justly  celebrated  throughout 
Europe.  Such  was  the  state  of  our  country  when,  in  the 
ninth  century,  began  the  last  great  migration  of  northern 
barbarians.^^  —  Ibid. 

(^)  "In  1 89 1  there  was  one  student  enrolled  in  a  college 
of  the  liberal  arts  and  sciences  for  every  1363  inhabitants 
of  the  United  States.  Counting  five  persons  to  a  family, 
this  means  that  one  family  in  every  272.6,  the  country  over, 
contributed  to  the  college  population.  Of  course,  in  some 
sections  of  the  country  the  ratio  was  much  less.  In  Massa- 
chusetts, for  example,  there  was  one  college  student  for 
every  858  of  population,  or  one  for  every  17 1.6  families. 
In  Iowa  the  proportion  was  one  to  908  persons,  or  181.6 
famines;  in  Utah,  one  to  789  persons,  or  157.8  famiUes. 
These  statistics,  read  in  relation  to  the  vast  extent  of  the 
territory  of  the  United  States  and  to  the  heterogeneousness 
of  its  population  of  70,000,000,  are  ample  proof,  if  proof 
were  needed,  that  the  college  is  a  very  familiar  feature  in 
American  Hfe,  and  that  it  supplies  the  educational  needs  of 
the  people  to  a  remarkable  degree." 

—  Butler  :    The  Meaning  of  Education. 

It  does  not,  of  course,  follow  that  every  paragraph 
should  close  with  a  summary  sentence.  Indeed,  the 
summary  sentence,  especially  in  narrative,  is  the  ex- 
ception rather  than  the  rule.  Whenever  a  paragraph 
is  short,  and  the  thought  is  easy  to  follow,  a  summary 
sentence  is  scarcely  necessary,  nor  is  it  necessary 
when  the  paragraph  begins  with  a  topic  sentence. 


CHAP,  xii]  Paragraphs  197 

It  is  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of  emphasis  that  the 
paragraph  end  with  a  striking  statement.^ 

132.  The  Development  of  the  Paragraph.  —  The  main 
object  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  the  making  of  a  good 
paragraph  is  that  the  chief  idea  shall  stand  out  clearly. 
This  result  is  partly  attained  by  the.  use  of  the  topic 
sentence  or  the  summary  sentence  or  both.  But  it. 
can  be  fully  attained  only  when  the  facts  or  details 
contained  in  the  body  of  the  paragraph  aid  in  the 
process.  Notice,  in  the  examples  given  below,  how, 
after  the  topic  is  stated,  the  writers  go  on  to  explain, 
illustrate,  or  prove  it,  until  the  reader  has  no  difficulty 
in  apprehending  the  principle  involved. 

(^)  "We  have  always  thought  it  strange  that,  while  the 
history  of  the  Spanish  empire  in  America  is  familiarly  known 
to  all  the  nations  of  Europe,  the  great  actions  of  our  country- 
men in  the  East  should,  even  among  ourselves,  excite  little 
interest.  [A  typical  example  follows.]  Every  schoolboy 
knows  who  imprisoned  Montezuma,  and  who  strangled  Atahu- 
alpa.^  But  we  doubt  whether  one  in  ten,  even  among  English 
gentlemen  of  highly  cultivated  minds,  can  tell  who  won  the 
battle  of  Buxar,  who  perpetrated  the  massacre  of  Patna, 
whether  Sujah  Dowlah  ruled  in  Oude  or  in  Travancore,  or 
whether  Holkar  was  a  Hindoo  or  a  Mussulman.  [There  fol- 
lows an  explanation  of  the  reason  why  a  knowledge  of  the 
first  set  of  facts  is  less  important  or  significant  than  that  of 

1  Here  the  pupil  should  do  the  writing  indicated  in  Exercise  58, 
parts  V,  VI,  and  VII. 

2  Macaulay  was  prone  to  believe  that  "  every  schoolboy"  might  con- 
fidently be  expected  to  know  almost  everything.  But  Prescott's  en- 
trancing Conquest  of  Mexico  and  Conquest  of  Peru  were,  shortly  after 
Macaulay  wrote,  more  widely  read  than  now. 


igS  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xii 

the  second.]  Yet  the  victories  of  Cortes  were  gained  over 
savages  who  had  no  letters,  who  were  ignorant  of  the  use  of 
metals,  who  had  not  broken  in  a  single  animal  to  labor,  who 
wielded  no  better  weapons  than  those  which  could  be  made 
out  of  sticks,  flints,  and  fish-bones,  who  regarded  a  horse- 
soldier  as  a  monster,  half  man  and  half  beast,  who  took  a 
harquebusier  for  a  sorcerer,  able  to  scatter  the  thunder  and 
lightning  of  the  skies.  The  people  of  India,  when  we  sub- 
dued them,  were  ten  times  as  numerous  as  the  Americans 
whom  the  Spaniards  vanquished,  and  were  at  the  same  time 
quite  as  highly  civilized  as  the  victorious  Spaniards.  They 
had  reared  cities  larger  and  fairer  than  Saragossa  or  Toledo, 
and  buildings  more  beautiful  and  costly  than  the  cathedral 
of  Seville.  They  could  show  bankers  richer  than  the  richest 
firms  of  Barcelona  or  Cadiz,  viceroys  whose  splendor  far  sur- 
passed that  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  myriads  of  cavalry 
and  long  trains  of  artillery  which  would  have  astonished  the 
Great  Captain.  [A  repetition  of  the  main  idea  follows,  with 
the  indication  of  another  reason  why  Englishmen  should 
know  about  India,  —  namely,  that  its  conquest  was  the  work 
of  their  own  countrymen.]  It  might  have  been  expected 
that  every  Enghshman  who  takes  any  interest  in  any  part 
of  history  would  be  curious  to  know  how  a  handful  of  his 
countrymen,  separated  from  their  home  by  an  immense 
ocean,  subjugated,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  one  of  the 
greatest  empires  in  the  world.  [A  summary  sentence  fol- 
lows.] Yet,  unless  we  greatly  err,  this  subject  is  to  most 
readers,  not  only  insipid,  but  positively  distasteful." 

—  Macaulay  :  Lord  Clive. 

(F)  "  Perhaps  the  fault  lies  partly  with  the  historians. 
[Two  examples  follow.]  Mr.  Mill's  book,  though  it  has  un- 
doubtedly great  and  rare  merit,  is  not  sufficiently  animated 
and  picturesque  to  attract  those  who  read  for  amusement. 
Orme,  inferior  to  no  English  historian  in  style  and  power  of 


CHAP,  xii]  Paragraphs  199 

painting,  is  minute  even  to  tediousness.  In  one  volume  he 
allots,  on  an  average,  a  closely  printed  quarto  page  to  the 
events  of  every  forty-eight  hours.  The  consequence  is  that 
his  narrative,  though  one  of  the  most  authentic  and  one  of 
the  most  finely  written  in  our  language,  has  never  been  very 
popular,  and  is  now  scarcely  ever  read."  —  Ibid. 

{c)  "  Ordinary  criminal  justice  knows  nothing  of  set-off. 
[A  general  principle  has  been  stated  :  there  follows  a  sentence 
of  explanation.]  The  greatest  desert  cannot  be  pleaded  in 
answer  to  a  charge  of  the  slightest  transgression.  [An 
example  follows.]  If  a  man  has  sold  beer  on  Sunday 
morning,  it  is  no  defence  that  he  has  saved  the  life  of  a 
fellow-creature  at  the  risk  of  his  own.  [Another  example 
follows.]  If  he  has  harnessed  a  Newfoundland  dog  to  his 
Httle  child's  carriage,^  it  is  no  defence  that  he  was  wounded 
at  Waterloo.  [But  this  principle  does  not  apply  to  our 
judgment  of  certain  men.]  But  it  is  not  in  this  way  that 
we  ought  to  deal  with  men  who,  raised  far  above  ordinary 
restraints,  and  tried  by  far  more  than  ordinary  temptations, 
are  entitled  to  a  more  than  ordinary  measure  of  indulgence. 
[An  explanation  of  this  modified  principle  follows.]  Such 
men  should  be  judged  by  their  contemporaries  as  they  will 
be  judged  by  posterity.  Their  bad  actions  ought  not,  indeed, 
to  be  called  good  ;  but^eir  good  and  bad  actions  ought  to 
be  fairly  weighed ;  and  if  on  the  whole  the  good  preponder- 
ate, the  sentence  ought  to  be  one,  not  merely  of  acquital, 
but  of  approbation.  [Illustrations  follow.]  Not  a  single 
great  ruler  in  history  can  be  absolved  by  a  judge  who  fixes 
his  eye  inexorably  on  one  or  two  unjustifiable  acts.  Bruce 
the  deliverer  of  Scotland,  Maurice  the  deliverer  of  Germany, 
William  the  deHverer  of  Holland,  his  great  descendant  the 
deliverer  of  England,  Murray  the  good  regent,  Cosmo  '  the 

1  This  appears  to  have  been  contrary  to  English  law. 


200  Eleme7tts  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xii 

father  of  his  country,  Henry  the  Fourth  of  France,  Peter 
the  Great  of  Russia,  —  how  would  the  best  of  them  pass 
such  a  scrutiny  ?  [A  summary  sentence  follows.]  History 
takes  wider  views ;  and  the  best  tribunal  for  great  political 
cases  is  the  tribunal  which  anticipates  the  verdict  of  history." 

—Ibid. 

{d)  "Indeed  our  affairs  are  in  a  bad  condition.  I  do 
assure  those  gentlemen  who  have  prayed  for  war,  and  have 
obtained  the  blessing  they  have  sought,  that  they  are  at  this 
instant  in  very  great  straits.  The  abused  wealth  of  this 
country  continues  a  little  longer  to  feel  its  distemper.  As 
yet  they,  and  their  German  allies  of  twenty  hireling  states, 
have  contended  only  with  the  unprepared  strength  of  our 
own  infant  colonies.  But  America  is  not  subdued.  Not 
one  unattacked  village  which  was  originally  adverse  through- 
out that  vast  continent,  has  yet  submitted  from  love  or 
terror.  You  have  the  ground  you  encamp  on ;  and  you 
have  no  more.  The  cantonments  of  your  troops  and  your 
dominions  are  exactly  of  the  same  extent.  You  spread 
devastation,  but  you  do  not  enlarge  the  sphere  of  authority." 
—  Burke:  Letier  to  the  Sheriffs  of  Bristol, 

EXERCISE  58 

I.  Find,  in  the  extracts  quoted  in  this  book,  three 
paragraphs  beginning  with  topic  sentences. 

II.  Find,  in  a  newspaper,  five  paragraphs,  each 
complete  in  itself,  beginning  with  topic  sentences. 

III.  Write  five  topic  sentences  on  which  para- 
graphs may  be  developed,  adding  after  each  notes  of 
the  details  which  you  would  use. 

IV.  Develop  at  least  one  of  these  paragraphs.^ 

1  This  exercise  should  be  repeated  until  the  pupil  is  familiar  with 
the  process. 


V 


CHAP,  xii]  Paragraphs  201 

V.  Find,  in  the  extracts  quoted  in  this  book,  three 
paragraphs  ending  with  summary  sentences.  Do 
they  also  begin  with  topic  sentences } 

VI.  Find,  in  a  newspaper,  five  one-paragraph  edi- 
torials ending  with  summary  sentences.  Do  they 
also  begin  with  topic  sentences  t 

VII.  After  jotting  down  the  facts  which  might 
form  the  basis  of  a  paragraph,  write  a  summary  sen- 
tence, and  then  the  paragraph  itself.^ 

VIII.  After  reading  carefully  the  extracts  quoted 
in  the  preceding  section,  write  a  paragraph  on  *'A 
Bicyclist's  Opinion  of  the  Roads  in  this  Vicinity," 
taking  care  to  state,  in  illustration  or  proof,  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  facts  to  make  your  meaning  stand 
out  clearly. 

IX.  Make  a  list  of  five  or  more  similar  topics  of 
local  interest  or  importance.  One  topic  of  this  sort 
should  then  be  assigned  to  each  member  of  the  class, 
as  a  subject  for  a  single  paragraph,  to  be  written  im- 
promptu or  handed  in  later.^ 

133.  Coherence.  —  Unity  of  the  paragraph  implies 
that  the  writer  has  determined  specifically  the  subject- 
matter  of  each  paragraph ;  emphasis,  that  *he  has 
made  prominent  what  is  most  important  in  it ;  cohe- 
rence prescribes  an  orderly  and  logical  connection 
and  structure  of  thought  within  the  paragraph.  If 
a  paragraph  be  coherent,  the  reader  not  only  will 
understand   in   general   the   writer's    point,  but  will 

1  This  exercise  should  be  repeated,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  instructor, 
until  the  student  is  familiar  with  the  process. 


202  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xii 

appreciate  in  detail  the  process  of  thought  by  which 
it  has  been  developed.^  To  gain  coherence  in  the 
structure  of  paragraphs  three  hints  may  be  found 
valuable :  — 

(i)  Build  your  paragraph  on  some  plan. 

(2)  Notice,  as  you  write,  just  what  you  have  said 
in  each  sentence,  and  decide  what  statement  must 
necessarily  follow  in  order  that  your  full  thought 
may  be  brought  out. 

(3)  Use  freely  conjunctions  and  conjunctive 
phrases,  such  as  tJioiigh,  zvhile,  hence,  accordingly, 
yet,  notwithstanding,  tJierefore,  on  the  07ie  hand, 
on  the  other  ha7id,  071  the  co7ttrary,  for,  indeed,  but, 
and,  moreover,  however,  etc.  Such  words  bind  to- 
gether sentences  and  parts  of  sentences,  and  help 
to  make  style  coherent  and  logical. 

134.  Coherence  :  the  Plan.  —  That  the  main  thought 
of  a  paragraph  should  be  brought  out  clearly  we  have 
seen  in  §  132.  We  must  now  notice  how  that  thought 
may  be  developed  systematically.  It  is  often  pos- 
sible so  to  divide  a  subject  that  the  reader  may  know 
at  the  outset  that  it  consists  of  two,  or  three,  or  four 
parts,  which  will  be  considered  in  regular  order. 
Notice  the  following  examples  :  — 

1  "  Every  man,  as  he  walks  through  the  streets,  may  contrive  to  jot 
down  an  independent  thought;  a  short-hand  memorandum  of  a  great 
truth.  .  .  .  Standing  on  one  leg,  you  may  accomplish  this.  The 
labor  of  composition  begins  when  you  have  to  put  your  separate  threads 
of  thought  into  a  loom;  to  weave  them  into  a  continuous  whole;  to 
connect,  to  introduce  them;  to  blow  them  out  or  expand  them;  to 
carry  them  to  a  close."  —  De  QuinCey  :   Essay  on  Style. 


CHAP,  xii]  Paragraphs  203 

{a)  "  Two  general  facts  in  regard  to  language  become 
apparent  as  the  effect  of  the  Conquest.  One  is,  that  though 
the  native  tongue  continued  to  be  spoken  by  the  great  ma- 
jority of  the  population,  it  went  out  of  use  as  the  language 
of  high  culture.  It  was  no  longer  taught  in  the  schools.  It 
was  no  longer  employed  at  the  court  of  the  king,  or  the 
castles  of  the  nobles.  It  was  no  longer  used  in  judicial 
proceedings ;  to  some  extent  even  it  ceased  to  be  recog- 
nized in -the  services  of  the  church.  This  displacement  was 
probably  slow  at  first ;  but  it  was  done  effectually  at  last. 
The  second  fact  is,  that,  after  the  Conquest,  the  educated 
classes,  whether  lay  or  ecclesiastical,  preferred  to  write  either 
in  Latin  or  French,  the  latter  steadily  tending  to  become 
more  and  more  the  language  of  literature  as  well  as  of  polite 
society.  We  have,  in  consequence,  the  singular  spectacle 
of  two  tongues  flourishing  side  by  side  in  the  same  country, 
and  yet  for  centuries  so  utterly  distinct  and  independent 
that  neither  can  be  said  to  have  exerted  much  direct  appre- 
ciable influence  upon  the  other,  though  in  each  case  the 
indirect  influence  was  great." 

—  LOUNSBURY  :  History  of  the  English  Language. 

ih)  "  As  it  happens  there  is  a  department  of  literature 
...  in  which  we  can  also  declare  four  chronological  periods, 
the  one  following  the  other  and  flowering  from  it.  This  is 
the  art  of  fiction.  In  the  beginning  fiction  dealt  with  the 
Impossible,  —  with  wonders,  with  mysteries,  with  the  super- 
natural ;  and  these  are  the  staple  of  the  A7'abia7i  Nights,  of 
Greek  romances  like  the  Golden  Ass,  and  of  tales  of  chivalry^ 
like  Amadis  of  Gaul.  In  the  second  stage  the  merely  Im- 
-vDrobable  was  substituted  for  the  frankly  impossible ;  and 
me  hero  went  through  adventures  such  as  might  befall  any- 
body, but  in  quantity  far  more  than  are  likely  to  happen  to 
any  single  man,  unless  his  name  were  Gil  Bias  or  Quentin^ 
Durvvard,   Natty   Bnmppo,  or   d'Artagnan.      Then   in    the 


204  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xii 

course  of  years  the  Improbable  was  superseded  by  the 
Probable  ;  and  it  is  by  their  adroit  presentation  of  the  Proba- 
ble that  Balzac  and  Thackeray  hold  their  high  places  in  the 
history  of  the  art.  But  the  craft  of  the  novelist  did  not 
come  to  its  climax  with  the  masterpieces  of  Balzac  and  of 
Thackeray ;  its  development  continued  perforce,  and  there 
arose  story-tellers  who  preferred  to  deal  rather  with  the 
Inevitable  than  with  the  Probable  only.  Of  this  fourth  stage 
of  the  evolution  of  fiction  perhaps  the  most  salient  examples 
are  the  Scarlet  Letter  of  Hawthorne  and  the  Romola  of 
George  Eliot,  the  Smoke  of  Turgeniefif,  and  the  An7ia  Kare- 
nina  of  Tolstoi." — Brander  Matthews:  Aspects  of  Fiction, 

When  it  is  not  necessary  —  and  it  usually  is  not  — 
to  divide  the  subject  into  numbered  points,  it  is  always 
possible  to  arrange  the  details  in  a  succession  of 
orderly  groups,  as  in  the  f oUov^ing  illustration  :  — 

"  There  are,  furthermore,  certain  great  advantages  which 
the  pulpit  orator  has  over  other  speakers.  The  themes 
which  he  treats  are,  for  the  audience  he  addresses,  para- 
mount to  any  other ;  they  deal  not  with  aesthetic  apprecia- 
tion, or  with  earthly  rights,  but  with  the  most  momentous 
questions  of  human  conduct  and  a  future  life.  The  build- 
ing in  which  he  speaks  is  specially  adapted  for  the  purpose 
for  which  it  is  used.  In  a  material  way  the  acoustics  and 
the  seating  arrangements  are  as  nearly  perfect  as  they  can 
be  made  ;  no  inclement  weather  or  ill-lighted  auditorium 
can  lessen  the  effect  of  the  discourse.  In  a  higher  sense, 
the  stained  windows,  the  music,  the  decorations  of  the 
chancel  add  spirituality  and  reverence  to  the  scene.  In 
addition  to  this,  the  preacher  knows  just  when,  under  what 
circumstances,  and  to  whom  he  will  make  his  address.  No 
one  can  take  his  time  or  interrupt  him,  and  nothing  can 
happen  to   vex  or  make  impatient  his  congregation.     In 


CHAP,  xii]  Paragraphs  205 

short,  nearly  every  condition  which  makes  up  two  of  the 
three  essentials  of  oratory  —  the  subject  and  the  occasion  — 
the  pulpit  orator  has  at  his  command." 

—  R.  C.  RiNGWALT :  Modern  American  Oratory?- 

135.  Coherence :  Sequence.  —  Often  it  will  not  be 
possible  to  divide  the  topic  reserved  for  a  particular 
paragraph  into  set  parts,  or  groups  of  facts.  The 
writer  must  then  fall  back,  for  purposes  of  coher- 
ence, on  the  logical  sequence  of  thought.  He  must 
present  the  various  details  which  he  wishes  to  intro- 
duce in  such  an  order  that  one  shall  lead  directly  to 
another. 

Example :  — - 

"  A  European  cannot  spend  an  evening  in  an  American 
drawing-room  without  perceiving  that  the  attitude  of  men  to 
women  is  not  that  with  which  he  is  familiar  at  home.  The 
average  European  man  has  usually  a  slight  sense  of  con- 
descension when  he  talks  to  a  woman  on  serious  subjects. 
Even  if  she  is  his  superior  in  intellect,  in  character,  in  social 
rank,  he  thinks  that  as  a  man  he  is  her  superior,  and  con- 
sciously or  unconsciously  talks  down  to  her.  She  is  too 
much  accustomed  to  this  to  resent  it,  unless  it  becomes 
tastelessly  paluable.  Such  a  notion  does  not  cross  an  Ameri- 
can's mind.  He  talks  to  a  woman  just  as  he  would  to  a 
man,  of  course  with  more  deference  of  manner,  and  with 
a  proper  regard  to  the  topics  likely  to  interest  her,  but 
giving  her  his  intellectual  best,  addressing  her  as  a  person 
whose  opinion  is  understood  by  both  to  be  worth  as  much  as 
his  own.  Similarly  an  American  lady  does  not  expect  to 
have  conversation  made  to  her.     It  is  just  as  much  her  duty 

1  At  this  point  the  pupil  should  do  the  work  indicated  in  Exercise 
59,  parts  I  and  II, 


2o6  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xii 

or  pleasure  to  lead  it  as  the  man's  is,  and  more  often  than 
not  she  takes  the  burden  from  him,  darting  along  with  a  gay 
vivacity  which  puts  to  shame  his  slower  wits." 

—  Bryce  :    The  America^i  Commonwealth, 

136.  Coherence  :  Connectives.  —  The  logical  sequence 
of  details  may  often  be  made  more  clear  by  the  use  of 
connectives  and  reference  v^ords,  as  in  the  following 
example:  — 

''  In  fact,  the  private  schools  for  boys  are,  generally 
speaking,  not  regarded  with  much  respect  in  Germany. 
Nor  is  there,  for  that  matter,  any  great  reason  why  they 
should  be,  chiefly  because  there  is  no  place  for  them  in  the 
general  scheme  of  education.  There  are,  to  be  sure,  a  con- 
siderable number  of  parents  who  do  not  wish  to  send  their 
sons  to  the  gymnasium  or  other  large  public  schools  before 
they  are  twelve  or  thirteen  years  old ;  but  except  for  these 
very  young  boys,  the  pupils  in  the  private  schools  are  almost 
exclusively  those  who  cannot  find  a  place  in  the  public 
schools ;  that  is,  they  are  hopeless  dunces,  or  foreigners,  or 
boys  who,  having  left  the  gymnasium  for  the  realschule,  or 
vice  versa,  are  attending  a  private  school  as  the  best  avail- 
able means  of  effecting  the  transition.  This  last  class  is, 
however,  very  small,  leaving  for  the  private  schools  few 
pupils  except  small  children,  dunces,  and  foreigners.  This 
state  of  things  is  easily  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the 
teachers  in  the  public  schools  are  not,  like  those  of  the 
private  schools,  directly  dependent  upon  their  pupils  for 
their  support,  but  are  appointed  by  government  authority. 
Their  discipline  is,  therefore,  likely  to  be  better,  being  ad- 
ministered without  fear  or  favor  on  account  of  the  compara- 
tive security  of  their  tenure  of  office.  It  must  also  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  gymnasia,  realschulen,  and  realgymnasia, 
though  not  actually  free  schools,  are  very  nearly  so,   the 


CHAP.  XII ]  Paragraphs  207 

charge  for  tuition  being  merely  nominal,  while  the  private* 
schools  must  support  themselves  from  the  price  of  tuition." 

137.  Lack  of  Coherence:  Connectives.  —  Lack  of 
coherence  occurs:  — 

(i)  When  not  enough  connectives  are  used.     See 

§133(3). 

(2)  When  wrong  connectives  are  used.  And,  also, 
and  so  are  not  good  sentence  connectives.  And  is 
generally  used  to  connect  parts  of  a  sentence,  and 
should  be  used  sparingly  at  the  beginning  of  sen- 
tences. To  employ  it  frequently  is  to  give  our 
writing  the  effect  of  a  child's  prattle.  Also  is  not 
commonly  used  at  the  beginning  of  sentences;  e.g. 
it  is  awkward  to  write,  ^^  Also  I  gave  him  a  quarter." 
It  is  better  to  write,  ''  I  also  gave  him  a  quarter.'* 
So  is  a  very  weak  connective  (see  §  106),  and,  though 
much  used  colloquially  at  the  beginning  of  sentences, 
should  in  writing  be  avoided  in  this  position. 

EXERCISE  59 

I.  Make  plans  for  the  treatment  of  three  topics, 
the  details  with  regard  to  each  of  which  can  be  divided 
into  three  or  four  numbered  groups,  as  in  extracts  (a) 
and  {b)  in  §  134.     Write  one  of  these  paragraphs.^ 

II.  Make  plans  for  the  treatment  of  three  topics, 
the  details  with  regard  to  each  of  which  may  be 
grouped  in  an  orderly  fashion,  as  in  extract  {c)  in 
§  134.      Write  one  of  these  paragraphs. 

1  This  exercise,  and  those  indicated  in  parts  II  and  IV,  should  be 
repeated  until  the  pupil  is  tboroui^hly  familiar  with  the  process. 


2o8  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xii 

III.  Find  two  paragraphs  in  which  connectives 
are  used  with  skill. 

IV.  Criticise  the  composition  of  one  of  your  class- 
mates, pointing  out  the  places  where,  if  at  all,  his 
work  is  lacking  in  coherence,  and  showing  how  the 
fault  could  be  remedied. 


CHAP,  xiiij        The   Whole  Composition  209 


CHAPTER   XIII 

THE  WHOLE  COMPOSITION 

138.  The  Whole  Composition.  — 139.  Unity.  — 140.  Emphasis.— 
141.  Coherence.  — Exercise  60.  — 142.  The  First  Stage:  the 
Plan.  —  143.  The  Second  Stage  :  the  Details.  —  144.  The 
Formula  for  a  Composition.  —  Exercise  61. 

138.  The  Whole  Composition. — Following  our  ascend- 
ing scale  (see  §  123),  we  now  come  to  the  largest  unit 
of  style,  —  the  whole  composition, — by  which  we 
mean  a  long  theme,  a  book,  a  chapter  of  a  book,  a 
speech,  a  sermon,  or  any  other  combination  of  para- 
graphs developing  a  single  larger  idea.  Let  us  apply, 
first,  to  the  whole  composition  the  three  principles  of 
unity,  emphasis,  and  coherence  which  we  have  already 
applied  to  the  sentence  and  to  the  paragraph. 

139.  Unity.— The  principle  of  unity  prescribes  that 
the  unit  or  element  which  is  under  consideration — in 
this  case  the  whole  composition  —  shall  concern  one, 
and  only  one,  subject,  and  that  there  shall  be  in  it 
no  extraneous  matter.  There  are  several  hints  which 
will  help  the  student  in  applying  this  principle. 

(i)  Choose  a  subject  about  which  you  know  some- 
thing, or  can  find  out  something.  Avoid  such  vague 
and  unnatural  subjects  as  "The  Pleasures  of  Spring," 


2IO  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xiii 

''  The  Evils  of  War,"  ''  Unity  is  Strength/'  or  ^^  Virtue 
is  its  Own  Reward,"  in  regard  to  which  it  is  scarcely- 
possible  for  a  young  man  to  have  knowledge  or  to 
feel  interest.  Write  within  the  limits  of  your  own 
experience,  write  earnestly,  and  it  will  not  be  hard  to 
stick  to  the  subject  which  you  have  proposed  for 
yourself. 

(2)  Limit  your  subject  rigidly.  Choose  a  small, 
definite  subject,  and  try  to  treat  it  thoroughly.  With 
a  large  or  ill-determined  subject  the  temptations  to 
stray  aside  are  much  greater.  As  the  topic  for  a 
short  essay,  for  instance,  "  Abraham  Lincoln  "  is  bet- 
ter than  "American  Statesmen."  Better  than  the 
former  would  be  "Lincoln  as  President";  and  even 
further  restriction  might  be  advantageous. 

(3)  Be  sure  that  your  title  suggests  your  subject. 
If,  for  instance,  your  essay  is  an  account  of  the  way 
in  which  a  humming-bird  fed  her  young  and  taught 
them  to  fly,  your  title  should  not  be  "A  Widow 
and  Twins,"  but  something  which  will  indicate  to 
the  reader  what  the  subject-matter  really  concerns. 
Plain,  specific  titles,  for  instance,  are  "  On  the  Study 
of  Geography,"  "Rowing  at  Oxford,"  "What  the 
Southern  Negro  is  doing  for  Himself,"  "Classical 
Literature  in  Translation."  Be  sure,  too,  that  your 
title  is  not  a  mere  catchpenny,  sensational  heading, 
such  as  are  common  in  certain  newspapers. 

(4)  The  subject  once  definitely  determined,  and  a 
plain,  appropriate  title  chosen,  be  sure  that  every 
sentence  and   every  paragraph  have  a  distinct  bear- 


CHAP,  xiii]         The    Whole  Composition  211 

ing  on  that  subject  and  come  rightfully  under  that 
title. 

140.  Emphasis.  —  In  the  whole  composition  empha- 
sis prescribes  that  important  ideas  should  occupy 
prominent  places.  With  this  result  in  view  the 
writer  should  bear  in  mind  the  following  hints  :  — 

(i)  Treat  at  length  what  is  important  or  signifi- 
cant. Pass  rapidly  over  or  omit  entirely  what  is 
relatively  unimportant  or  insignificant.  Many  a 
theme,  for  instance,  which  purports  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  a  day's  fishing  is  spoiled  because  the  writer 
expends  four-fifths  of  his  time  and  space  in  relating 
how  he  got  up  and  off  in  the  morning,  and  leaves 
only  a  remnant  of  them  for  the  more  important  part 
of  his  narrative.  Many  a  theme  on  the  life  of  Napo- 
leon, or  some  other  historical  character,  has  proved 
worthless  because  the  writer  has  wasted  his  strength 
on  the  insignificant  details  of  his  subject's  childhood, 
instead  of  economizing  rigorously  on  time  and  space 
in  order  to  state  adequately  the  important  facts  of 
his  manhood  and  great  career. 

(2)  Let  your  beginning  indicate  clearly  what  your 
subject  is,  and  how  you  mean  to  treat  it.  The  two 
following  examples  will  show  plainly  how  explicit 
such  indications  may  properly  be  :  — 

(a)  "  I  purpose  to  write  the  history  of  England  from  the 
accession  of  King  James  the  Second  down  to  a  time  which 
is  within  the  memory  of  men  still  living.  I  shall  recount  the 
errors  which,  in  a  few  months,  alienated  a  loyal  gentry  and 
priesthood  from  the  House  of  Stuart.    I  shall  trace  the  course 


2 1 2  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xiii 

of  that  revolution  which  terminated  the  long  struggle  between 
our  sovereigns  and  their  parliaments,  and  bound  up  together 
the  rights  of  the  people  and  the  title  of  the  reigning  dynasty. 
I  shall  relate  how  the  new  settlement  was,  during  many 
troubled  years,  successfully  defended  against  foreign  and 
domestic  enemies ;  how,  under  that  settlement,  the  authority 
of  law  and  the  security  of  property  were  found  to  be  com- 
patible with  a  liberty  of  discussion  and  of  individual  action 
never  before  known  ;  how,  from  the  auspicious  union  of  order 
and  freedom,  sprang  a  prosperity  of  which  the  annals  of 
human  affairs  had  furnished  no  example ;  how  our  country, 
from  a  state  of  ignominious  vassalage,  rapidly  rose  to  the 
place  of  umpire  among  European  powers  ;  how  her  opulence 
and  her  martial  glory  grew  together ;  how,  by  wise  and 
resolute  good  faith,  was  gradually  estabhshed  a  public  credit 
fruitful  of  marvels  which  to  the  statesmen  of  any  former  age 
would  have  seemed  incredible ;  how  a  gigantic  commerce 
gave  birth  to  a  maritime  power,  compared  with  which  every 
other  maritime  power,  ancient  or  modern,  sinks  into  insig- 
nificance ;  how  Scotland,  after  ages  of  enmity,  was  at  length 
united  to  England,  n©t  merely  by  legal  bonds,  but  by  indis- 
soluble ties  of  interest  and  affection ;  how,  in  America,  the 
British  colonies  rapidly  became  far  mightier  and  wealthier 
than  the  realms  which  Cortez  and  Pizarro  had  added  to  the 
dominions  of  Charles  the  Fifth  ;  how,  in  Asia,  British  ad- 
venturers founded  an  empire  not  less  splendid  and  more 
durable,  than  that  of  Alexander." 

—  Macaulay  :  History  of  England. 

{h)  "  For  twenty-six  years  the  negro  has  had  his  freedom, 
and  now  the  question  is.  What  use  has  he  made  of  it?  I 
have  just  returned  from  an  extended  trip  through  the  South, 
arranged  and  made  solely  for  the  purpose  of  getting  an 
answer  to  the  question,  What  is  the  colored  man  doing  for 
himself?     I  have  travelled  through  Virginia,  the  Carolinas, 


UNiVt-RSi" 

..OF 

CHAP,  xiii]         The    Whole  Composition  2^4^==*^ 

Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  returning  through 
Tennessee,  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  Maryland.  In  the 
course  of  this  journey,  covering  thirty-five  hundred  miles,  I 
have  visited  schools,  colleges,  and  industrial  institutions  in 
most  of  the  large  centres  of  the  South,  from  Baltimore  to 
New  Orleans.  I  have  gone  through  the  Black  Belt,  inspected 
the  agricultural  districts,  visited  farms  and  cabins,  and  have 
seen  every  phase  of  negro  life,  from  the  destitution  of  the 
one-room  cabin  to  the  homes  of  the  comfortable  and  pros- 
perous, and  every  degree  of  social  standing,  from  the  convicts 
in  the  chain-gang  in  the  New  Orleans  Parish  Prison  and  the 
Birmingham  mines  to  ministers,  lawyers,  doctors,  and  bankers 
on  the  top  round  of  the  social  ladder.  As  a  result  of  this 
observation  and  experience,  I  have  some  clearly  defined  im- 
pressions and  some  interesting  evidence  as  to  what  the  negro- 
is  doing  for  himself." 

—  Barrows  :  What  the  Southern  Negro  is  doing  for  Himself. 

(3)  Look  no  less  carefully  to  the  end  than  to  the 
beginning.  Be  sure  that  the  reader  leaves  your  work 
v^ith  a  clear  idea  of  v^hat  your  main  points  are. 

"  To  sum  up,  then,  the  facts  which  show  what  the  negro 
is  doing  for  himself,  it  is  clear  that  the  new  generation  of 
Afric-i\mericans  is  animated  by  a  progressive  spirit.  They 
are  raising  and  following  their  own  leaders.  They  are  rapidly 
copying  the  organic,  industrial,  and  administrative  features 
of  white  society.  They  have  discovered  that  industrial  re- 
demption is  not  to  be  found  in  legislative  and  political 
measures.  In  spite  of  oppressive  usury  and  extortion,  the 
colored  man  is  buying  farms,  accumulating  property,  estab- 
Hshing  himself  in  trade,  learning  the  mechanic  arts,  devising 
inventions,  and  entering  the  professions.  Education  he  sees 
to  be  the  pathway  to  prosperity,  and  is  making  immense 
sacrifices  to  secure  it.     He  is  passing  into  the  higher  states 


214  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xiii 

of  social  evolution.  In  religion,  the  *  old-timer'  is  giving 
way  to  the  educated  preacher.  Religion  is  becoming  more 
ethical.  The  colored  people  are  doing  much  to  take  care 
of  their  own  unfortunate  classes.  The  cooperative  spirit  is 
slowly  spreading  through  trades-unions,  building  associations, 
and  benevolent  guilds.  In  no  way  is  the  colored  man  doing 
more  for  himself  than  by  silently  and  steadily  developing  a 
sense  of  self-respect,  new  capacity  for  self-support,  and  a 
pride  in  his  race,  which,  more  than  anything  else,  secure  for 
him  the  respect  and  fraternal  feeling  of  his  white  neighbors." 

—  Ibid, 

141.  Coherence.  —  Coherence  of  the  whole  com- 
position is  strictly  analogous  to  coherence  of  the 
sentence  and  of  the  paragraph.  We  must  bind  our 
words  together  logically  into  sentences,  our  sentences 
together  logically  into  paragraphs,  and  our  para- 
graphs together  logically  into  the  whole  composition. 
The  only  quality  indispensable  in  serious  writing  is 
order.  As  the  chief  aim  of  all  composition  is  usually 
to  tell  the  reader  something  which  he  presumably  did 
not  know  before,  it  is  obvious  that  to  impart  to  him 
this  new  information  we  must  begin  where  we  and  the 
reader  have  some  knowledge  in  common,  and  then 
lead  him  by  consecutive  logical  stages  to  that  which 
he  is  to  understand.  For  that  purpose  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  our  work  be  carefully  planned.  We 
can  no  more  write  successfully  without  a  definite 
conception  of  what  the  structure  of  our  composition 
is  to  be,  than  an  architect  can  build  without  having  in 
mind  a  well-defined  and  well-oro^anized  structure. 


CHAP,  xiii]         The    Whole  Composition  215 

EXERCISE  60. 

I.  Select  five  small  definite  subjects  ;  tell  why  you 
think  you  have  sufficient  information  to  write  on  them 
or  how  you  propose  to  obtain  the  necessary  informa- 
tion; choose  an  appropriate  title  for  each  subject. 

II.  What  fault  do  you  find  with  the  following 
subjects  for  short  themes :  — 

Heat.  Light.  Sound.  Mineral  Deposit.  Photography. 
The  Future  of  our  Republic.  Harvard  University.  Youth's 
Best  Lesson.  The  Circle.  Proverbs  of  the  World.  The 
Indians.     History.     Literature. 

Suggest  in  each  case  modifications  that  would 
make  the  subject  a  suitable  one. 

III.  Examine  the  titles  and  head-lines  in  several 
current  newspapers  in  order  to  see  whether  they 
suggest  or  represent  the  substance  of  the  articles 
adequately  and  without  vulgarity. 

IV.  Criticise  in  point  of  emphasis  and  coherence 
the  following  theme,  and  indicate  the  plan  on  which 
it  should  be  rewritten :  — 

A  Cruise  in  a  Yacht 

Living  on  a  large  river,  with  the  ocean  very  near,  makes 
yachting  very  handy  for  me.  Two  weeks  at  least  of  my 
summer  hohdays  are  spent  on  board  a  yacht.  This  last 
summer  I  cruised  down  the  Delaware  and  outside  the  Capes 
as  far  as  Barnegat. 

Two  boy  friends,  the  captain,  the  cook,  and  myself  com- 
posed the  crew. 

We  started  one  dismal  Sunday  with  a  howling  east  wind 


2i6  Eleme7its  of  RJietoric  [chap,  xiii 

that  took  ns  down  the  river  at  steamboat  speed.  That  night 
it  was  very  foggy,  so  we  had  to  keep  blowing  a  horn  every 
half-minute.  Blowing  a  fog-horn  is  no  joke,  and  after  keep- 
ing it  up  half  an  hour  your  head  feels  all  mouth. 

To  cook  in  rough  weather  is  difficult  and  funny.  The 
cook  generally  spills  the  coffee  down  somebody's  neck,  and 
hurls  the  steak  at  your  head. 

Rather  than  cook  anything  we  lived  on  dried  beef  and 
crackers  for  two  days. 

The  next  day  it  cleared  off,  and  while  we  were  anchored 
for  dinner  a  police  boat  came  up  and  ordered  us  away.  We 
had  unintentionally  anchored  over  some  oyster  beds  and 
were  taken  for  pirates. 

The  sixth  or  seventh  day  out  it  rained,  and  drenched  us 
all  so  that  we  had  to  take  our  clothes  off  to  dry  them. 

Our  five  pairs  of  trousers  were  dangling  in  the  air  when 
a  strong  puff  of  wind  came  and  seemed  to  pick  them  off  the 
line  one  at  a  time,  and  walk  away  with  them.  We  wore 
blankets  the  rest  of  the  cruise,  and  when  we  got  back  to  the 
wharf  we  sent  a  small  boy  to  a  store  to  buy  us  some  overalls. 

The  next  cruise  I  take  will  be  with  two  pairs  of  trousers 
at  least. 

142.  The  First  Stage  :  the  Plan.  —  The  first  stage  in 
the  planning  of  a  good  piece  of  writing,  —  a  school 
composition,  for  instance,  —  is  the  preparation  of  a 
rough  plan  or  skeleton  that  shall  indicate  the  few 
main  points.  The  following  ^^^'U  serve  as  illustra- 
tions :  — 

(i)  Subject:  My  Fondness  for  the  Sea.  Point  I.  I 
really  am  fond  of.  the  sea.  Point  II.  Early  associations 
with  it.  Point  III.  Later  associations  with  it.  Point  IV. 
My  fondness  for  it  leads  me  to  make  certain  plans. 


CHAP,  xiii]         The    Whole  Composition  217 

(2)  Subject :  A  Typical  Day  in  my  Summer  Vacation. 
I.  General  circumstances.  II.  Forenoon.  III.  After- 
noon. IV.  Evening.  V.  General  effects  on  my  health 
and  happiness. 

(3)  Subject :  How  to  Swim.  I.  Importance  of  learn- 
ing. II.  General  principles.  III.  The  dog  stroke.  IV. 
The  breast  stroke.  V.  Other  strokes.  VI.  Pleasure  and 
benefit  derived  from  swimming. 

143.  The  Second  Stage  :  the  Details. —  The  next  stage 
in  the  planning  of  a  composition  is  the  filling  out  of 
this  rough  scheme,  and  determining  about  how  much 
space  shall  be  given  to  each  head. 

(i)    Subject:  My  Fondness  for  the  Sea. 

I.  I  really  am  fond  of  the  sea.  A  good  many  people  say 
they  are.  They  merely  like  to  sit  on  the  piazza  of  a  sea- 
shore hotel  or  go  out  on  a  sailboat  for  a  forenoon.  I  Uke 
it  winter  and  summer,  in  storm  and  sunshine.  Enjoy  living 
on  it  or  by  it.  Partly  due  to  the  fact  that  I  like  fishing, 
saiHng,  swimming.  Partly  to  my  associations  with  the  sea. 
[100  words.] 

II.  I  was  born  by  the  sea.  I  lived  by  it.  Father  a  sea- 
captain.  How  I  learned  to  swim  and  sail  a  boat.  Friends 
I  had  among  sailors.      [150  words.] 

III.  Later  I  made  several  long  coasting  trips  and  once 
crossed  the  ocean  on  a  sailing-vessel.     [150  words.] 

IV.  The  consequence  is  that  I  am  so  attached  to  the  sea 
that  I  really  feel  homesick  when  away  from  it.  I  am  going 
to  be  a  lawyer  and  shall  probably  have  to  live  in  the  city. 
But  I  mean  to  have  as  much  to  do  with  the  sea  as  possible. 
Perhaps  make  a  specialty  of  marine  law.  At  any  rate,  a 
cottage  at  the  seashore,  as  soon  as  I  can  afford  it,  and  a 
good  sailboat.     [200  words.] 


2i8  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xiii 

(2)    Subject :  A  Typical  Day  in  my  Summer  Vacation. 

I.  We  always  spend  the  summer  at  the  seashore.  House 
large,  and  I  am  allowed  to  have  at  least  one  guest  all  the  time. 
Good  sailing  on  the  harbor.  Good  sailboat.  Three  objects 
I  have  in  summer :  to  have  all  the  fun  I  can,  to  get  plenty 
of  exercise,  and  to  do  two  hours  of  reading  each  day.  This 
is  how  I  arrange  it.     [150  words.] 

II.  Up  at  6  in  morning.  Get  cook  to  give  me  a  cup  of 
coffee.  Reading  done  by  time  rest  of  family  are  ready  for 
breakfast.  Usually  sail  until  12,  then  go  in  bathing.  Dinner 
at  I.     [100  words.] 

III.  Loaf  round  for  an  hour  or  two.  Father  likes  to  have 
me  play  a  game  of  chess  with  him.  At  3  we  row  over  to 
town  for  the  mail,  then  take  a  long  walk  along  the  beach. 
[100  words.] 

IV.  After  supper  somebody  reads  a  good  novel  aloud ; 
or  we  tell  stories,  or  sing,  or  play  games ;  or,  sometimes,  if 
it  is  moonlight,  go  rowing.    Get  to  bed  early.     [100  words.] 

V.  The  result  is  that  at  the  end  of  the  summer  I  am 
always  in  good  condition,  and  have  had  the  very  best  of 
times.  Last  summer  I  gained  fifteen  pounds.  I  read 
Motley's  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Reptiblic^  and  Prescott's  Con- 
quest of  Peru.  This  winter  I  have  not  had  a  single  day  of 
illness.     [125  words.] 

After  such  a  rough  plan  has  been  made  and  the 
main  details  jotted  down  under  each  head,  there  is 
nothing  to  do  except  write  a  first  draft  of  the  compo- 
sition. Success  in  an  essay  lies  largely  in  the  plan- 
ning. 

144.  The  Formula  for  a  Composition.  —  It  seems  ab- 
surd to  speak  of  a  formula  for  a  composition,  and  yet 
there  is  one  very  simple  and  natural  way  of  arrang- 


CHAP,  xiii]         The    Whole  Composition  219 

ing  material  for  a  short  essay.  It  is  very  frequently 
employed  by  experienced  writers,  and  young  writers 
should  be  familiar  with  it  and  use  it.  It  is  this:  — 
state  in  the  first  paragraph  what  the  general  subject 
is  and  what  the  heads  are  under  which  you  will  take 
it  up ;  take  up  the  heads  in  that  order,  giving  to  each 
a  paragraph  or  a  group  of  paragraphs ;  in  a  conclud- 
ing paragraph  show  what  light  you  have  thrown  on 
the  subject. 

EXERCISE  61 

I.  Draw  up  a  plan  for  a  composition  of  about  a 
thousand  words,  in  at  least  five  paragraphs,  adding 
the  details  under  each  head.  Write  the  first  para- 
graph, the  last  paragraph,  and  the  first  sentence  of 
each  of  the  other  paragraphs. 

II.  Criticise  the  plan  of  a  composition  by  one  of 
your  classmates. 


220  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xiv 


CHAPTER   XIV 

CLEARNESS 

145.  The  Qualities  of  Style.  — 146.  How  to  Secure  Clear- 
ness.—147.  Clearness  is  not  Precision.  — 148.  Devices  for 
Securing  Clearness.  — 149.  Figures  of  Speech  for  the  Sake 
OF  Clearness.  —  Exercise  62.-150.  Lack  of  Clearness. — 
Exercise  63. 

145.  The  Qualities  of  Style. — We  have  studied  the 
word,  the  sentence,  the  paragraph,  and  the  whole 
composition,  and  noticed  how  the  lesser  units  may  be 
most  effectually  combined.  We  must  now  go  a  step 
farther,  and  ask  ourselves  what,  in  general,  are  the 
ways  in  which  we  most  desire  to  affect  a  reader,  or, 
in  other  words,  what  the  qualities  are  which  a  good 
style  should  have. 

First  of  all,  evidently,  it  is  indispensable  that  the 
writer  should  so  express  himself  that  the  reader  shall 
understand  him ;  second,  the  writer  must  hold  the 
reader's  attention,  and  in  one  way  or  another  interest 
and  move  him ;  third,  the  reader  must  find  himself 
pleased  or  satisfied,  so  far  as  his  taste  is  concerned, 
with  what  he  reads.  A  style,  then,  should  have,  first, 
clearness  —  the  quality  of  being  comprehensible; 
second,  force  —  the  quality  of  interesting  or  moving ; 
third,  elegance  —  the  quality  of  pleasing  or  satisfying 
the  taste.     The  student  will  observe  that  clearness  is 


CHAP,  xiv]  Clearness  221 

a  matter  of  the  intellect ;  we  may  understand  without 
being  moved.  Force  appeals  to  the  emotions.  Writ- 
ing that  is  strong,  forcible,  sometimes  moves  us  when 
we  do  not  fully  understand  it.  Elegance  appeals  to 
the  taste.  Writing  that  is  beautifully  polished  may 
also  please  us  when  it  is  not  wholly  clear  to  us  and 
does  not  move  us  deeply.  It  is,  therefore,  not  neces- 
sary that  good  writing  shall  possess  all  three  of  these 
qualities  at  the  same  time.  We  shall  treat  them 
separately. 

146.  How  to  Secure  Clearness.  —  Obviously,  the  first 
thing  necessary  to  make  others  understand  what  we 
mean  is  to  understand  ourselves  what  we  mean.  Until 
we  have  first  mastered  our  own  thoughts  there  is  little 
chance  that  we  can  express  them  clearly.  We  should 
distrust,  therefore,  our  knowledge  of  any  matter, 
simple  or  complex  in  nature,  unless  we  are  able  to 
give  to  ourselves  or  to  others  a  plain  and  straight- 
forward account  of  it.  We  must  cultivate  at  all 
hazards  the  habit  of  looking  for  the  gist,  or  what  we 
roughly  call  "the  long  and  short,"  of  a  matter,  and 
practise  ourselves  in  all  our  work  in  expressing  simply 
and  naturally  the  substance  of  the  information  we 
have  acquired. 

147.  Clearness  is  not  Precision.  — We  must  be  care- 
ful, however,  to  distinguish  clearness  from  precision 
or  technical  accuracy.  A  dressmaker's  description 
of  a  new  gown  would  perhaps  puzzle  a  man  as  much 
as  his  account  of  a  base-ball  game  or  a  yachting 
race  might  bewilder  a  woman.     An  engineer's  tech- 


222  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xiv 

nical  description  of  a  machine  might  be  perfectly 
clear  to  one  man  and  absolutely  obscure  to  another, 
though  both  were  equally  intelligent  and  equally  well 
educated.  Obviously,  clearness  is  a  relative  matter, 
depending  upon  the  audience  or  the  reader  which  the 
speaker  or  the  writer  addresses.  To  write  clearly, 
then,  we  must  never  lose  sight  of  those  for  whom 
we  are  writing.  A  man  with  special  knowledge 
must  be  able  to  communicate  with  those  who  share 
his  knowledge,  in  such  technical  language  that  they 
will  be  in  no  doubt  concerning  the  smallest  detail. 
He  should,  on  the  other  hand,  be  able  to  communi- 
cate with  men  expert  in  other  arts  or  sciences,  but 
unskilled  in  his.  In  either  case  the  manner  of  pro- 
cedure is  different :  in  the  one,  precise  and  technical; 
in  the  other,  more  general,  largely  untechnical.  Both 
methods  we  should  cultivate  ;  but  a  great  deal  of  our 
success  in  writing  depends  on  never  confusing  them. 
The  following  extracts  illustrate  {a)  precision  as 
distinguished  from  {b)  clearness  in  treating  subjects 
which  can  be  approached  from  both  points  of 
view :  — 

{a)  "In  my  time  it  sometimes  took  all  hands  —  a  ship's 
company  of  thirty  souls  —  to  close  reef  the  fore  and  main 
topsails  one  after  the  other.  I  have  seen  the  whole  watch 
*taiHng  on'  to  the  reef  tackles,  and  scarcely  able  to  make 
*  two  blocks '  of  them.  I  have  seen  the  topsail  with  the 
yard  on  the  cap  blowing  up  bladder-shaped,  hard  as  cast 
iron,  with  men  on  the  cloths  dancing  and  stamping  to  bring 
the  reef-band  down  to  the  grip  of  the  fellows  on  the  yard, 
with  a  seaman  at  the  weather  earing  shrieking  to  the  captain 


CHAP,  xiv]  Clearness  223 

on  the  poop  to  luff  and  shake  it  out  of  her,  the  captain 
meanwhile,  with  a  sullen  nod,  '  holding  on  all,'  fearing  not 
only  the  weight  of  a  green  sea  aboard,  but  the  loss  of  half 
the  men  off  the  yard  should  he  put  the  helm  down  by  a 
spoke  or  two.  As  with  the  studding-sail  so  with  the  single 
topsail ;  the  age  of  reefing  in  the  full  old  sense  of  that  word 
is  over;  and  let  those  who  contemplate  the  ocean  as  a 
career  be  thankful  that  it  is  so." 

—  W.  Clark  Russell  :    The  Life  of  the  Merchant  Sailor. 

(h)  "  We  all  know  that  if  we  '  burn '  chalk,  the  result  is 
quicklime.  Chalk,  in  fact,  is  a  compound  of  carbonic-acid 
gas  and  lime ;  and  when  you  make  it  very  hot,  the  carbonic 
acid  flies  away  and  the  hme  is  left.  By  this  method  of  pro- 
cedure we  see  the  lime,  but  we  do  not  see  the  carbonic 
acid.  Ifj  on  the  other  hand,  you  were  to  powder  a  little 
chalk  and  drop  it  into  a  good  deal  of  vinegar,  there  would 
be  a  great  bubbling  and  fizzing,  and  finally  a  clear  liquid,  in 
which  no  sign  of  chalk  would  appear.  Here  you  see  the 
carbonic  acid  in  the  bubbles ;  the  lime,  dissolved  in  the 
vinegar,  vanishes  from  sight.  There  are  a  great  many 
other  ways  of  showing  that  chalk  is  essentially  nothing  but 
carbonic  acid  and  quickhme.  Chemists  enunciate  the  re- 
sult of  all  the  experiments  which  prove  this,  by  stating  that 
chalk  is  almost  wholly  composed  of  '  carbonate  of  Hme.'  " 
—  Huxley  :    On  a  Piece  of  Chalk. 

148.  Devices  for  Securing  Clearness.  —  If  being  clear 
merely  means  that  v^e  succeed  in  making  the  person 
or  persons  for  whom  w^e  write  understand  what  we 
mean,  and  if,  as  is  evident,  we  address  in  almost  all 
our  writing  a  certain  fiction  called  the  average  man, 
we  have  yet  to  see  what  devices  we  can,  in  general, 
use  in  a  task  which,  though  often  difficult,  may  well 


224  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xiv 

arouse  one's  greatest  interest  and  ambition.     Among 
many  devices  three  suggest  themselves. 

(i)  Decide  just  what  you  can  expect  your  reader 
to  know  already  of  the  matter  under  treatment,  and 
make  it  a  rule  to  go  as  steadily  as  possible  from  what 
is  known  toward  that  which  is  unknown. 

(2)  As  you  proceed  in  your  task  of  informing  the 
reader,  take  care  that  by  summaries,  by  diagrams, 
by  maps  or  plans,  or  by  illustrations  or  anecdotes, 
you  take  the  reader  along  with  you,  so  to  speak,  in 
each  successive  step. 

(3)  Avoid,  on  the  one  hand,  unexplained  technical 
terms,  of  whatever  sort,  and,  on  the  other,  expressions 
so  vague  as  to  be  almost  meaningless. 

149.  Figures  of  Speech  for  the  Sake  of  Clearness.  — 
We  speak  figuratively  when  we  speak,  as  it  were,  by 
figures  or  parables ;  i.e.  when  we  do  not  state  facts  in 
their  plain  forms.  Figures  of  speech  are  expressions 
that  represent  one  fact  by  means  of  another.  They 
are  of  two  main  kinds  :  (i)  those  that  call  one  thing 
by  the  name  of  another,  e.g.  "he  is  a  lion  "  (a  brave 
man),  and  (2)  those  that  assert  that  a  thing  is  like 
something  else,  e.g.  "  he  fought  like  a  lion  "  (bravely). 
The  first  are  called  metaphors;  the  second,  similes. 
Figures  of  speech  are  generally  employed  for  the 
sake  of  force,  but  they  often  add  also  to  clearness ; 
and  similes,  in  particular,  are  often  employed  for  the 
sake  of  clearness  alone.  Notice,  for  instance,  the  fol- 
lowing description  of  a  lava  stream,  in  which  the 
figures  of  speech  are  printed  in  italics  :  — 


CHAP,  xiv]  Clearness  225 

**  Out  of  a  cave  of  slag  and  cinders  in  the  black  hillside 
rushes  a  golden  river,  flowing  like  honey,  and  yet  so  tough 
that  you  cannot  thrust  a  stick  into  it,  and  so  heavy  that 
great  stones  (if  you  throw  them  on  it)  float  on  the  top,  and 
are  carried  down  like  corks  on  water.  It  is  so  hot  that  yoii 
cannot  stand  near  it  more  than  a  few  seconds;  hotter, 
perhaps,  than  any  fire  you  ever  saw :  but,  as  it  flows,  the 
outside  of  it  cools  in  the  air,  and  gets  covered  with  slags 
and  cinders,  something  like  those  which  you  may  see  thrown 
out  of  furnaces  in  the  Black  Country  of  Staffordshire.  .  .  . 
The  stream  slides  down  glens  and  fills  them  up ;  down  the 
beds  of  streams,  driving  off  the  water  in  hissing  steam  ;  and 
sometimes  (as  it  did  in  Iceland  a  few  years  ago)  falls  over 
some  clifl",  turning  what  had  been  a  water-fall  into  a  fire-fall, 
and  filling  up  the  pool  below  with  blocks  of  lava  suddenly 
cooled,  with  a  clang  and  roar  like  that  of  chains  shaken  or 
brazen  vessels  beaten,  which  is  heard  miles  and  miles  away." 
—  KiNGSLEY :  Madam  How  and  Lady  Why. 

EXERCISE  62 

Examine  two  editorials  in  a  good  newspaper  and  write  a 
composition  on  the  devices  employed  therein  to  secure  clear- 
ness. 

150.  Lack  of  Clearness.  —  The  faults  opposite  to 
clearness  into  which  we  naturally  fall  are  technically 
known  as  ambiguity,  vagueness,  and  obscurity.  An 
ambiguous  word  may  be  understood  in  either  of 
two  senses ;  an  ambiguous  sentence  is  so  framed 
that  it  may  have  either  of  two  meanings;  a  vague 
statement  is  one  which  is  not  sufficiently  precise 
to  yield  to  the  reader  any  definite  meaning;  an 
obscure  sentence  is  simply  unintelligible.  All  such 
faults  are  easily  remedied  when  they  occur  in  iso- 


226  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xiv 

lated  cases :  ambiguity  and  vagueness  may  both  be 
avoided  by  the  use  of  words  so  definite  as  to  shut 
out  all  other  possible  meanings ;  obscurity  is  fre- 
quently merely  due  to  an  undue  complexity  of  expres- 
sion. But  the  most  frequent  temptation  not  to  be 
clear  that  besets  young  writers  is  a  lazy  habit  of 
thinking,  which  does  not  lead  to  absolute -obscurity, 
or  even  to  any  puzzling  ambiguity,.^but  whi^  results 
in  a  hopelessly  vague  manner  of  writing.  Be  ex- 
plicit, be  specific,  be  definite,  is  a  main  principle  alike 
of  good*  thinking  and  of  good  writing. 

The  following  examples  illustrate  vagueness  :  — 

(a)  Silas  Marner  is  first  seen  in  Lantern  Yard.  [The 
opening  sentence  of  a  composition  on  George  Eliot's 
Silas  Marner,  By  whom  was  he  "  first  seen  "  ?  Better  : 
"  At  the  opening  of  the  story  Silas  Marner  was  living  at 
Lantern  Yard."  Notice  that  the  passive  voice  is  necessarily 
more  vague  than  the  active  voice.] 

(J?)  I  think  that  the  natural  choice  of  one  reading  Quen- 
tin  Durward  would  be  the  hero  himself.  [Why  should  one 
"  choose  "  at  all  ?  Better :  "  The  reader  of  Quentin  Dtlrward 
naturally  prefers  the  hero  to  any  of  the  other  characters. 
This  is  because,  etc."] 

(c)  There  had  been  a  severe  easterly  storm  for  several 
days,  and  we  determined  to  take  the  yacht  and  go  down  to 
Gardiner's  Island  to  shoot  snipe.  [This  is  the  entire 
introduction  to  a  narrative  concerning  several  days'  shoot- 
ing. The  reader  has  necessarily  many  questions  to  ask, — 
When  was  this?  What  season  of  the  year?  Where?  Who 
are  "  we  "  ?     What  yacht  ?     Where  is  Gardiner's  Island  ?  ] 

(d)  I  was  riding  through  a  strip  of  woods  on  my  horse. 
It  was  an  ideal  night,  and  the  road  was  a  favorite  one.    [An 


f 


CHAP,  xiv]  Clearness  227 

introduction  to  a  ghost  story.  A  long  strip  of  woods?  Dense 
woods  ?  What  time  of  night  was  it  ?  What  sort  of  an  ideal 
night  was  it^  With  whom  was  the  road  a  favorite?  The 
writer  has  obviously  missed  his  chance  of  creating  a  good 
situation  for  a  ghost  story.] 

My  First  Impressions  of  Boston 

{e)  When  a  person  is  about  to  visit  a  strange  place  he 
usually  has  formed  an  idea  of  what  he  supposes  the  place  to 
be  like.  Sometimes  he  is  disappointed  and  sometimes  not, 
for  the  place  usually  turns  out  to  be  different  from  the  idea 
he  had  formed,  of  it.  When  I  started  for  Boston  I  had 
formed  an  idea  of  the  city  as  I  supposed  it  to  be,  but  I  was 
agreeably  surprised  when  it  turned  out  to  be  contrary  to  my 
expectations. 

Arriving  here  somewhat  early  in  the  morning,  not  many 
people  were  stirring,  and  I  therefore  had  ample  time  to 
look  around  the  city.  The  impression  which  Boston  made 
upon  me  was  a  very  good  one,  and  I  took  a  liking  to  the 
city  at  once. 

One  thing  which  pleased  me  very  much  was  the  varied 
style  of  architecture.  The  style  is  not  so  monotonous  as  it 
is  in  New  York,  where  one  may  walk  many  blocks  and  see 
one  house  built  like  another.  But  one  thing  seemed  rather 
strange,  and  that  was  the  irregularity  with  which  the  streets 
are  built.  A  stranger  need  only  walk  a  few  minutes  and  he 
hardly  can  find  his  way  back  again.  But  one  gets  used  to 
this  after  a  short  time.  Another  thing  which  made  a  favor- 
able impression  upon  me  were  the  suburbs  of  Boston.  These 
are  really  beautiful,  and  a  person  will  have  to  hunt  around  a 
long  time  before  he  can  find  their  equals. 

The  longer  I  remain  in  Boston  the  more  I  like  the  city. 
[It  was  impossible  to  gain  from  this  any  but  the  vaguest 
idea  of  what  the  writer's  first  impressions  of  Boston  were.] 


228  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xiv 

EXERCISE  63 

I.  Criticise  a  composition  by  one  of  your  class- 
mates, pointing  out  every  point  where  it  is  unneces- 
sarily vague. 

II.  Write  a  short  composition  on  your  first  im- 
pressions of  some  city  or  town,  avoiding  vagueness. 


CHAP,  xv]  Force  229 


CHAPTER   XV 

FORCE 

151.  Force.  — 152.  Devices  for  Securing  Force:  Emphasis.— 
153.  — Devices  for  Securing  Force:  Figures  of  Speech.— 
Exercise  64. 

151.  Force.  —  If  clearness,  the  intellectual  quality 
of  style,  presupposes  above  all,  on  the  part  of  the 
writer,  clear  and  sound  thinking,  force,  the  emotional 
quality,  demands  sympathy  and  earnestness.  To  move 
the  reader  to  laughter  or  tears,  to  affect  his  acts  or 
his  conduct,  to  inspire  or  repress  any  of  his  emotions, 
or  constantly  to  hold  his  attention,  is  an  art  too  deli- 
cate for  us  to  analyze  or  describe  here.  What  we 
can  be  certain  of,  however,  is  that,  in  the  writing 
each  one  of  us  is  inevitably  called  upon  to  do  day 
by  day,  our  work  will  be  strongest  when  (i)  we  are 
most  in  sympathy  with  those  we  are  addressing,  and 
(2)  when  we  have  the  most  hearty  interest  in  what 
we  write.  If  we  would  not  have  our  words  fall  with- 
out effect,  we  must  take  pains  to  carry  the  reader  with 
us  emotionally  as  well  as  intellectually.  To  accom- 
plish this,  interest  and  sympathy  are  the  main  quali- 
ties necessary.  What  interests  us  deeply  will  surely 
not  be  without  a  similar  effect  on  others ;  when  we 


230  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xv 

can  put  ourselves  into  sympathy  with  our  readers  it 
will  not  often  be  difficult  to  bring  them  into  sympathy 
with  us.  To  attain  a  forcible  style,  however,  we  must 
not  forget  that  there  is  still  another  requisite,  —  con- 
stant practice.  Mere  strength  of  thought  or  of  feeling 
does  not  make  a  good  writer  any  more  than  mere 
brute  strength,  without  the  ready  suppleness  that 
comes  from  thorough  training,  makes  a  good  athlete. 
If  we  are  wise  we  shall  never  let  a  day  of  our  lives 
pass  without  writing  something,  long  or  short,  and 
writing  it  as  well  as  we  can.  Practice  tells;  and  a 
letter,  a  leaf  in  a  note-book  or  a  diary,  even  a  tele- 
gram, may  be  so  well  composed  that  it  sensibly  or 
insensibly  leads  us  a  step  further  in  one  of  the  most 
important  of  our  duties,  —  that  of  so  mastering  the 
art  of  thinking  out  into  language  that  good  methods 
of  expression  become  habitual. 

152.  Devices  for  Securing  Force:  Emphasis. — We 
must  glance  at  two  devices  for  securing  force.  The 
first,  that  of  emphasis,  is  already  familiar  to  us  {cf. 
§§  99,  129,  and  140),  and  we  need  scarcely  spend 
further  time  on  it  than  to  remark  the  obviousness  of 
the  fact  that  arranging  the  parts  of  a  composition  in 
the  order  of  relative  strength  and  importance  adds 
greatly  to  the  force  of  what  one  writes.  Climax  and 
antithesis  (from  Greek  words  meaning,  respectively, 
''ladder"  and  "putting  over  against,"  i.e.  contrast), 
are  special  forms  of  emphasis. 

In  climax,  statements  are  made  in  an  ascending 
scale,  —  according  to  the  interest  or  importance  of 


CHAP,  xv]  Force  231 

each,  —  the  strongest,  or  most  impressive,  last.  A 
good  instance  is  the  first  paragraph  of  the  extract 
from  Parkman  on  page  124.  Here  a  general  state- 
ment of  the  fording  of  the  Monongahela  is  followed 
by  a  particular  statement  as  to  the  troops  present ;  this 
by  a  statement  that  there  were  individuals  present  in 
whom  we  are  deeply  interested  ;  and  this  by  the  men- 
tion of  Gage,  Gates,  —  and  finally  Washington. 

In  antithesis,  opposite  statements  are  placed  side 
by  side,  and  gain  force  by  contrast,  as  in  the  follow- 
ing example  :  — 

"  But  perhaps  to  people  who  live  crowded  together  in 

closely-built  cities  the  life  of  a  Mount  Desert  family  seems 

solitary  and  dreary.     They  cannot  hear  the  newsboys'  and 

hucksters'  cries,  the  rattle  of  vehicles  and  clatter  of  hoofs 

on  stone  pavements,  the  buzz  and  rumble  of  electric  cars, 

and  the  screaming  of  factory  whistles.     They  cannot  see 

the  thronged  street  and  the  gay  shop  windows,  the  electric 

lights,  the  grand  houses,  and  the  public  monuments.     They 

cannot  ride  on  street-cars,  parade  on  Main  Street  or  Fifth 

Avenue,  and  visit  at  pleasure  the  dime  museum,  the  dog, 

cat,  horse,  or  baby  show,  or  the  negro  minstrels.     These, 

indeed,  are  some  of  the  sights,  sounds,  and  social  privileges 

which  are  denied  to  a  rural  and  seaboard  population.     Still 

they  have  compensations.     They  hear  the  loud  monotone 

of  the  surf  on  the  outer  islands,  the   splash  of  the  waves 

on  the  inner  beaches,  the  rushing  of  the  brook,  the  cawing 

of  crows,  the  songs  of  robins  and  thrushes,  and  the  rustling 

of  the  leaves  in  the  breeze.      They  see  the  sky,  the  sea, 

the  woods,  the  ponds,  and  the  hills  in  all  the  varying  lights 

and  shadows  of  summer  and  winter,  morning  and  evening, 

sunshine  and  storm." 

—  President  Eliot:    The  Forgotten  Millions. 

Q 


232  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xv 

153.    Devices   for   Securing  Force  :    Figures.  —  The 

second  device  for  securing  force  is  the  use  of  fig- 
ures of  speech.  We  have  already  seen  (§  149) 
how  the  simile  and  the  metaphor  may  be  used  for 
the  sake  of  clearness.  They  are  much  more  fre- 
quently used  for  the  sake  of  force,  and  it  will  be 
observed  that  nothing  is  more  natural  than  the  in- 
stinctive employment  of  figures  for  this  purpose. 
Notice,  for  instance,  the  following  examples :  — 

(^d)  The  German  princes,  anxious  to  narrow  the  preroga- 
tive of  their  head,  the  emperor,  were  the  natural  allies  of 
the  pope,  whose  spiritual  thunders^  more  terrible  than  their 
own  lances,  could  enable  them  to  depose  an  aspiring 
monarch. 

{b^  Asceticism  of  this  sort  is  like  the  insurance  which  a 
man  pays  on  his  house  and  goods.  The  man  who  has  daily 
inured  himself  to  habits  of  concentrated  attention  and  self- 
denial  in  unnecessary  things,  will  stand  like  a  tower  when 
everything  rocks  around  him,  and  when  his  softer  fellow- 
mortals  are  winnowed  like  chaff  in  the  blast, 

(<:)  Good  manners  are  essentially  a  disposition  which 
moulds  conduct.  They  can  be  feigned,  indeed,  as  gilt 
counterfeits  gold,  and  plate  silver.  But  the  clearest  glass 
is  not  diamond.  A  man  may  smile  and  smile  and  be  a 
villain. 

(^)  "  Then  felt  I  like  some  watcher  of  the  skies. 
When  a  new  planet  swims  into  his  ken  ; 
Or  hke  stout  Cortez  —  when  with  eagle  eyes 
He  stared  at  the  Pacific,  and  all  his  men 
Look'd  at  each  other  with  a  wild  surmise  — 
Silent  upon  a  peak  in  Darien." 

Keats  :    On  First  Looking  into  Chapman's  Homer. 


CHAP,  xv]  Force  233 

The  real  function  of  figures  of  speech  is  to  stim- 
ulate the  mind  by  awakening  fresh  associations. 
When  we  say,  ''  Her  eyes  were  bright  and  her  hair 
dark,"  we  arouse  in  the  mind  of  the  reader  only  a 
familiar  train  of  thought  connecting  ''eyes"  with 
''bright  things"  and  "hair"  with  "dark  things." 
When,  however,  Wordsworth  says,  — 

"  Her  eyes  as  stars  of  twilight  fair  ; 
Like  twilight's  too  her  dusky  hair," 

he  stimulates  our  fancy  by  awakening  unusual  and  yet 
fitting  trains  of  ideas. 

Figures  should,  as  far  as  possible,  arise  in  the  mind 
of  the  writer  spontaneously.  The  inexperienced 
writer  will,  however,  need  to  keep  in  mind  the  follow- 
ing advice :  — 

(i)  Figures  should  arouse  appropriate  associations. 
When,  for  instance,  Wordsworth  describes  a  maiden  as 

"  A  violet  by  a  mossy  stone 
Half-hidden  from  the  eye  ! 
Fair  as  a  star  when  only  one 
Is  shining  in  the  sky," 

he  uses  figures  which  impress  us  with  her  modesty  and 
beauty.  Quite  the  opposite,  however,  is  the  case  in  the 
following  Unes  by  an  old  New -England  writer  in  the  praise 
of  a  pious  clergyman :  — 

"  A  living,  breathing  Bible ;   tables  where 
Both  covenants  at  large  engraven  were; 
Gospel  and  law  in  his  heart  had  each  its  column; 
His  head  an  index  to  the  sacred  volume; 
His  very  name  a  title-page;   and  next 
His  life  a  commentary  on  the  text. 


234  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xv 

O,  what  a  monument  of  glorious  worth, 
When,  in  a  new  edition,  he  comes  forth, 
Without  erratas,  may  we  think  he'll  be 
In  leaves  and  covers  of  eternity."  ^ 

Here  the  trains  of  thought  aroused  are,  under  the  circum- 
stances, more  ludicrous  than  impressive. 

(2)  Similarly,  figures  should  not  confuse  several  incon- 
gruous trains  of  thought,  as  in  the  following  "mixed" 
figures : — 

{a)  Italy  is  a  narrow  tongue  of  land,  the  backbone  of 
which  is  formed  by  the  Apennines. 

{h)  He  unravelled  all  these  obscurities  and  with  his 
pe7ietrating  illustrations  threw  light  on  all  these  unparalleled 
complications. 

We  should  be  careful  also  not  to  jumble  together  plain  and 
figurative  language,  as  in  the  often  quoted  remark  that  a 
certain  scientist  was  "  the  father  of  chemistry  and  brother  to 
the  Earl  of  Cork." 

(3)  The  charm  and  value  of  figures  depend  largely 
upon  their  freshness ;  they  throw  new  light,  as  it  were,  on 
the  subject.  We  must  be  careful,  therefore,  to  avoid  figures 
so  often  used  and  well  worn  that  they  have  become  mean- 
ingless. Slang,  too,  which  is  largely  figurative  in  character, 
is  effective  under  certain  circumstances,  because  of  the 
startling  trains  of  thought  which  it  awakens.  It  is  ineffec- 
tive when  these  trains  of  thought  involve  vulgar  associations, 
or  when  it  has  passed  into  a  merely  conventional  and  mean- 
ingless form  of  expression. 

The  ancient  rhetoricians  distinguished  many  forms 
of  expression  besides  similes  and  metaphors,  but  the 
general  feeling   now  is   that  it  is  not  necessary  to 

1  From  a  poem  on  John  Cotton  by  Benjamin  Woodbridge  (1607-75), 
in  Stedman  and  Hutchinson's  Library  of  A?7terican  Literature^  vol.  i, 
page  360.     Quoted  also  in  Wendell's  English  CoT?iposition. 


CHAP,  xv]  Force  235 

attempt  minute  discrimination  in  such  matters.  It  is 
worth  while,  perhaps,  to  call  the  pupil's  attention  to 
the  figures  called  metonomy  and  synecdoche,^  and  to 
the  forms  of  expression  called  personification  and 
apostrophe.  Metonomy  is  applied  to  the  use  of  a 
sign  for  the  thing  signified,  as  in  "  fire  and  sword  "  for 
"war,"  the  "cross  and  the  crescent"  for  "  Christians 
and  Mohammedans."  Synecdoche  is  applied  to  the 
use  of  a  part  for  the  whole,  as  when  we  speak  of 
"hands"  for  "workmen."  The  terms  are,  however, 
scarcely  to  be  distinguished,  and  the  student  need 
have  only  a  general  conception  of  their  meaning  and 
force.  Personification  is  referring  to  inanimate  or 
imaginary  things  as  if  they  were  alive,  as  in  "  Quick, 
thy  tablets.  Memory "  ;  apostrophe  is  the  technical 
term  for  an  address,  in  poetry  or  impassioned  prose, 
as  in  "  Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  ocean,  roll !  " 
It  is  interesting,  moreover,  to  notice  that  many  familiar 
words  and  expressions  are  figurative  in  essence,  as, 
for  example,  "under-standing,"  "awakening  a  train- 
of  thought." 

EXERCISE  64 

I.  Analyze  a  strong  newspaper  editorial,  showing 
how  the  writer  contrives  to  give  force  to  his  remarks. 

II.  Criticise  the  following  composition  as  regards 
emphasis :  — 

It  was  on  a  very  warm  summer's  afternoon  when  we  went 
to  the  shore.  While  seated  on  the  beach  watching  the  surf 
bathers,  the  heavy  black  clouds  began  to  gather  and  the 

1  Metonomy  and  synecdoche  are  from  Greek  words  meaning  literally 
"  change  of  name  "  and  "  understanding  together." 


236  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xv 

distant  roll  of  thunder  soon  sent  the  many  pleasure  seekers 
away  from  the  beach.  The  lightning  now  began  to  flash, 
and  we  were  forced  to  make  a  hasty  retreat  for  the  hotel. 

The  storm  now  set  in  with  all  its  fury,  and  our  attention 
was  soon  attracted  to  a  small  sailing  vessel  tossing  up  and 
down  upon  the  waves.  Its  only  occupant  appeared  to  be  an 
elderly  man,  and  every  now  and  then  the  wind  would  make 
his  cries  for  help  more  audible.  At  length  two  of  the  Life 
Saving  Crew  rushed  to  the  shore,  jumped  aboard  their  boat, 
and  with  some  difficulty  rescued  him  and  brought  him 
ashore. 

III.  Distinguish  force  from  clearness.  Mention, 
if  possible,  a  piece  of  writing  which  has  one  of  these 
qualities  without  the  other.  What  kinds  of  words 
and  what  kinds  of  sentences  have,  as  a  rule,  the  most 
force } 

IV.  Define  the  metaphor,  the  simile.  Find  five 
striking  metaphors ;  five  striking  similes.  To  what, 
in  each  case,  do  they  owe  their  effect  .-^ 

V.  In  a  set  of  the  compositions  you  have  written, 
note  just  what  figurative  language  you  have  employed. 
Is  it,  in  any  instance,  ineffective  }     Why  } 

VI.  Analyze  a  dozen  current  slang  expressions, 
noting  whether  they  are  similes  or  metaphors.  Un- 
der what  circumstances  are  the  figures  of  speech 
involved    appropriate  } 

VII.  Note  the  figures  of  speech  in  one  of  your 
favorite  poems,  and  determine  what  effect  each  has 
on  the  reader. 

VIII.  Criticise  the  figures  of  speech  in  the  follow- 
ing passages :  — 


CHAP,  xv]  Force  237 

(a)   He  flung  aside  the  mask  and  showed  the  cloven  foot. 

{b)  The  heroic  Spanish  gunners  had  no  defence  but  bags 
of  cotton  joined  to  their  own  courage. 

{c)  The  secretary  said  that  the  keynote  of  the  govern- 
ment's poHcy  was  wrapped  in  obscurity. 

(d)  If  the  Roman  toga  has  been  bedraggled  in  the  filth 
and  the  mire  of  the  centuries,  surely  the  cloak  of  senatorial 
courtesy  has  been  used  to  hide  the  infamy  and  the  corruption 
which  has  dishonored  and  disgraced  a  body  which  was  once 
the  proudest  in  the  land.  The  cloak  of  senatorial  courtesy 
has  become  a  stench  in  the  nostrils  and  a  byword  in  the 
mouths  of  all  honest  citizens  of  the  land. 


238  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xvi 


CHAPTER  XVI 

ELEGANCE 

154.  Elegance.  — 155.  Preparation  of  Manuscript.— 156.  At- 
tention TO  Details. —  157.  Good  Taste.  — 158.  Conclusion. 

• 

154.  Elegance. — With  a  little  care  we  shall  dis- 
tinguish the  aesthetic  quality  of  style,  elegance,  from 
clearness,  the  intellectual,  and  force,  the  emotional 
quality  of  style.  A  book  may  be  clear  and  yet  dull ; 
it  may,  under  some  circumstances,  be  strong  or  in- 
teresting  and  yet  not  altogether  clear ;  and  it  may  be 
clear  and  interesting,  and  still  unpleasant  or  unsatis- 
factory to  the  taste.  Work  that  is  thoroughly  pleas- 
ing, thoroughly  satisfactory  to  the  taste,  we  shall  cal] 
elegant ;  not  of  course  in  the  vulgar  and  local  sense  of 
the  word,^  but  in  its  truer  meaning,  indicating  some- 
thing which  is  so  select  or  so  finely  adapted  to  its  uses 
that  it  completely  satisfies  the  taste.  Such  a  quality 
must  obviously  be  determined  rather  by  the  par- 
ticular circumstances  of  a  given  piece  of  composition 
than  by  any  generalization.  The  following  hints, 
however,  may  help  us  in  many  cases. 

155.  Preparation  of  Manuscript.  —  Nothing  is  so  sure 
to  displease  even  the  most  benevolent  reader  as  bad 
manuscript.      What  is  worth    doing  at  all   is  worth 

1  E.g.  as  in  the  incorrect  expression,  "  an  elegant  time." 


CHAP,  xvi]  Elegance  239 

doing  with  care,  and  care  includes  at  least  a  plain 
hand,  good  spelling,  adequate  punctuation,  and  neat- 
ness of  general  appearance.  He  who  habitually 
forces  another  to  read  slovenly  manuscript  is  answer- 
able for  a  grave  discourtesy. 

156.  Attention  to  Details.  —  Elegance,  however,  pre- 
scribes something  more  than  neat  and  careful  manu- 
script; it  prescribes  a  scrupulous  care  with  regard 
to  the  details  of  style.  This  implies,  not  fussiness, 
but  a  constant  effort  to  say  what  one  has  to  say 
adequately,  not  so  much  witR  regard  to  form,  as  with 
regard  to  what  the  form  is  but  the  shadow  of  —  the 
substance.  Awkwardness,  crabbedness,  or  mawkish- 
ness  of  style,  no  less  than  sheer  vulgarity,  all  alter  the 
very  stuff  of  the  writer's  thought,  and  hinder  him  in 
his  task  of  communication.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  prac- 
tice tells.  Care  begets  ease ;  earnest  attention  to  the 
sound  of  the  words  one  writes  and  to  their  rhythm 
and  balance  produces  at  last  a  smoothly  flowing  style ; 
accuracy  of  thought  and  feeling  tends  to  the  develop- 
ment of  taste,  and  good  taste  is  at  the  root  of  what  we 
call  elegance. 

157.  Good  Taste.  —  Good  taste  forbids  above  all 
what  is  usually  called  "smartness."  Whatever  we 
have  to  say  should  be  said  simply,  directly,  quietly, 
without  affection,  bombast,  or  bravado.  As  an  ex- 
ample of  bad  taste  notice  the  following  letter :  — 

Dear  Sirs  :  Once  again  as  Father  Time  hobbles  up  to 
the  finishing  post  at  the  end  of  another  short  year,  and  turns 
the  sand-glass  in  his  weary  and  wrinkled  hand,  and  gives  the 


240  Elements  of  Rhetoric  [chap,  xvi 

scythe  a  twist  over  to  the  other  shoulder,  we  turn  reflectively 
to  the  days  that  he  has  mown  off  the  field  of  eternity  since 
last  we  addressed  you,  and  our  musings  and  ponderings  are 
of  a  very  pleasant  nature.  The  old  gentleman  has  dealt 
kindly  by  us ;  he  has  permitted  us  to  carry  on  the  work  we 
had  hewn  out  in  the  sphere  which  we  specially  considered 
worthy  of  better  consideration ;  he  has  allowed  the  sun  of 
prosperity  to  cast  its  warming  beams  over  our  heads,  and 
our  hands  and  hearts  have  been  strengthened  anew  by  the 
praises  and  encouraging  words  he  has  caused  our  friends  to 
utter  for  the  work  we  are  striving  to  do. 

Still,  notwithstanding  all  this,  we  are  not  yet  satisfied. 
You  have  never  given a  trial.  Surely  the  Cana- 
dian trade  is  worth  something  to  you.  Will  you  give  us 
something  this  year?  We  are  not  particular  as  to  the  size  of 
the  space.  We  want  you  represented  in  our  columns. 
Respectively  yours. 

The  Publishing  Co. 

158.  Conclusion.  — A  word  must  be  said,  in  conclu- 
sion, about  the  models  a  student  should  have  before 
him.  There  is  such  a  thing  as  aiming  too  high.  De 
Quincey  and  Landor  and  Bacon  and  Addison  and  all 
the  so-called  classics  are  no  doubt  such  great  models 
of  English  style  that  a  persistent  and  intelligent  study 
of  them  v^ill  be  of  the  greatest  advantage  alike  to  the 
young  and  the  old  writer.  But  it  is  a  fact  of  experience, 
to  which  teachers  of  English  composition  will  testify, 
that  it  is  by  no  means  every  young  student  who  has 
imagination  and  literary  skill  enough  to  discover  what 
is  really  admirable  in  the  style  of  men  who  wrote  and 
thought  generations  or  centuries  ago.  For  the  bulk 
of  a  class,  it  is,  perhaps,  to  be  questioned  whether 


CHAP,  xvi]  Elegance  241 

familiarity  with  the  works  and  style  of  a  good  con- 
temporary  essayist  —  Mr.  John  Fiske,  for  instance, 
or  any  of  the  score  of  good  writers  who  contribute 
to  the  best  American  and  EngUsh  periodicals  —  is 
not  more  advantageous  than  the  usual  dishearten- 
ing study  of  the  great  masters.  Such  men  may  not 
be  great  stylists,  but  they  are  safe  models  for  any 
boy  or  young  man.  The  virtues  that  make  their 
writing  praiseworthy  he  can  scarcely  help  under- 
standing and  appreciating,  and  these  virtues,  Hke 
those  of  the  good  citizen,  are  not  inimitable  or  inac- 
cessible, but  within  the  reach  of  whoever  thinks  and 
feels  clearly,  broadly,  and  finely. 


APPENDIX 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  FOR  HOME  READING 

The  following  typical  list  is  that  of  the  Conference 
on  Uniform  Entrance  Requirements  in  English :  — 

Addison  and  Steele  :  Selections  (especially  Sir  Roger  de 
Coverley).  ^schylus :  Agamemnon  (Fitzgerald's  transla- 
tion) ;  Prometheus  Bound  (Mrs.  Browning's  translation). 
Arabian  Nights.  Arnold  (Matthew)  :  Balder  Dead  ;  Sohrab 
and  Rustum.  Austen  :  Emma ;  Pride  and  Prejudice.  Ba- 
con :  Essays.  Ballads  :  Selection  from  English  and  Scottish. 
Bible  (King  James'  Version).  Blackmore  :  Lorna  Doone. 
Boswell :  Life  of  Johnson.  Browning:  Balaustion's  Adven- 
ture ;  Selections  from  Poems.  Bryant :  Poems.  Bulfinch  : 
Age  of  Fable.  Bulwer :  Last  of  the  Barons ;  Last  Days 
of  Pompeii.  Bunyan  :  Pilgrim's  Progress.  Burke  :  On  Con- 
ciliation with  America.  Burney  :  Evelina.  Burns  :  Selec- 
tions. Burroughs  :  Selected  Essays.  Byron  :  Childe  Harold  ; 
Selected  Poems.  Carlyle  :  Essay  on  Burns ;  Heroes  and 
Hero  Worship  ;  Past  and  Present.  Carroll :  Alice  in  Won- 
derland ;  Through  the  Looking  Glass.  Cervantes :  Don 
Quixote.  Chaucer  :  Prologue  and  Knight's  Tale.  Coleridge  : 
Poems.  Cooper  :  Leatherstocking  Tales  ;  The  Pilot ;  The 
Spy.  Cowper  :  Letters.  Curtis  :  Prue  and  I ;  The  Duty  of 
Educated  Men.     Dana  :  Two  Years  before  the  Mast.    Dante. 

242 


Appendix  243 

Defoe :  Robinson  Crusoe.  De  Quincey :  Opium  Eater ; 
Selections.  Dickens :  David  Copperfield ;  Nicholas  Nick- 
leby ;  Pickwick ;  Tale  of  Two  Cities.  Dryden :  Absalom 
and  Achitophel ;  Alexander's  Feast ;  Palamon  and  Arcite. 
Edgeworth  :  Belinda.  George  Eliot:  AdamBede;  Romola  ; 
Scenes  of  Clerical  Life  ;  Silas  Marner.  Emerson  :  Essays  ; 
Poems.  Foster  :  Life  of  Goldsmith.  Franklin  :  Autobiog- 
raphy. Froissart :  Chronicles.  Gaskell :  Cranford.  Goethe  : 
Faust,  Part  L  Goldsmith  :  Deserted  Village ;  Traveller ; 
Vicar  of  Wakefield.  Gray  :  Elegy ;  Letters.  Green  :  Short 
History  of  the  English  People.  E.  E.  Hale  :  Man  without 
a  Country.  Hawthorne  :  House  of  the  Seven  Gables  ;  Mar- 
ble Faun;  Scarlet  Letter;  Twice  Told  Tales.  Herodotus. 
Holmes  :  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table ;  Selections  from 
Poems.  Homer.  Hughes :  Tom  Brown's  School  Days. 
Irving  :  Alhambra  ;  Knickerbocker's  History  of  New  York  ; 
Life  of  Columbus  ;  Life  of  Washington  ;  Sketch  Book  ;  Tales 
of  a  Traveller.  Johnson  :  Rasselas.  Keats  :  Poems.  Kings- 
ley  :  Hypatia;  Water  Babies;  Westward  Ho!  KipHng : 
Jungle  Books.  Lamb  :  Essays  of  Eha ;  Tales  from  Shake- 
speare. Landor :  Selections  from  the  Imaginary  Conversa- 
tions. Lincoln  :  Gettysburg  Speech  ;  Second  Inaugural  Ad- 
dress. Lockhart :  Life  of  Scott.  Longfellow  :  Courtship  of 
Miles  Standish  ;  Evangeline  ;  Hiawatha;  Tales  of  a  Wayside 
Inn.  Lowell :  Biglow  Papers  ;  Poems.  Macaulay  :  Essays  ; 
Lays  of  Ancient  Rome.  Malory:  King  Arthur.  Mandeville. 
Marco  Polo.  Milton  :  Comus  ;  II  Penseroso  ;  L' Allegro  ; 
Lycidas ;  Paradise  Lost.  Montaigne :  Selected  Essays. 
Motley :  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic.  Newman  :  Idea  of 
a  University.  Palgrave :  Golden  Treasury,  First  Series. 
Parkman :  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac ;  Montcalm  and  Wolfe. 
Percy  :  Rehques.  Plato :  Apology  of  Socrates ;  Phaedo  ; 
Phaedrus.  Plutarch  :  Lives.  Poe  :  Poems  ;  Tales.  Pope  : 
Essay  on  Man ;  Rape  of  the  Lock.     Reade  :  Cloister  and 


244  Appendix 

the  Hearth.  Prescott :  Conquest  of  Mexico;  Conquest  ot 
Peru.  Ruskin :  King  of  the  Golden  River;  Sesame  and 
LiHes  ;  Selections.  Scott :  Abbot ;  Ivanhoe  ;  Kenilworth  : 
Lady  of  the  Lake ;  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel ;  Marmion ; 
Old  Mortality ;  Quentin  Durvvard ;  Talisman ;  Woodstock. 
Shakespeare  :  As  You  Like  It ;  Hamlet ;  Julius  Caesar  ;  King 
Lear;  Macbeth;  Merchant  of  Venice  ;  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream ;  Tempest;  Twelfth  Night ;  the  plays  concerned 
with  English  history.  Shelley  :  Selections.  Sophocles  :  An- 
tigone ;  CEdipus  King  (Jebb's  or  Plumptre's  translation). 
Spenser  :  Faerie  Queene.  Stevenson  :  David  Balfour  ;  Dr. 
Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde ;  Kidnapped ;  Poems ;  Treasure 
Island.  Stowe :  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin.  Swift :  Gulliver's 
Travels.  Tacitus  :  Agricola ;  Germania.  Taylor,  Bayard  : 
Views  Afoot.  Tennyson :  Poems.  Thackeray :  English 
Humorists  ;  Henry  Esmond  ;  Pendennis  ;  Four  Georges  ; 
Newcomes  ;  Vanity  Fair.  Thoreau  :  Walden.  Thucydides 
(Jowett's  translation).  Trevelyan  :  Life  of  Macaulay.  Tyn- 
dall :  Hours  of  Exercise  in  the  Alps.  Webster :  First 
Bunker  Hill  Oration  ;  Plymouth  Oration.  White  :  Natural 
History  of  Selborne.  Whittier  :  Snow-Bound;  Tent  on  the 
Beach.     Wordsworth  :  Selections. 


II 

WORDS   FREQUENTLY   MISUSED 

[This  list  contains  words  which  young  students 
frequently  misuse.  The  writer  suggests  that  pupils 
learn  to  distinguish  between  literary  usage  and 
colloquial    usage,    and    to    understand    that    many 


Appendix  245 

words  are  appropriately  used  in  familiar  conversa- 
tion that  would  be  inappropriate  in  serious  writing 
intended  for  the  general  public.  He  suggests  also 
that  pupils  recognize  that  there  is  such  a  thing  as 
*' divided  usage."  That  is,  that  many  men  of  scholar- 
ship and  education  approve  words  and  uses  of  words 
which  are  not  approved  of  by  men  of  equal  scholar- 
ship and  education.] 

Accept.     Sometimes    confused  with   except.     We   accept  a 

present ;  we  except  some  one  from  a  general  statement. 
Admire.      Used   for   "  like "  :    "I    should   admire   to  go.'* 

[Vulgar.] 
Affect.     Sometimes   confused  with  effect.      Pain  affects  us 

unpleasantly.     We  effect  a  result  when  we  bring  it  about. 
Aggravate.     See  page  32. 
Ain't,  as  in  "  I  ain't  going."     [Vulgar.] 
Allow.     "  I  allowed  (declared)  that  I  wouldn't  go."     Used 

only  in  certain  parts  of  the  country. 
^  Allude  does  not  mean  "  to  mention,"  but  "  to  touch  on  in 

passing." 
Among.     We  go  among  the  trees  ;  between  two  trees. 
Animalculae.      The  singular  is  animalcule  or  animalculum  ; 

the  plural,  anifnalcula. 
Anybody  else's.     The  possessive  of  anybody  else  is  either 

anybody  else's  or  anybody's  else.     The  former  has  been 

much  objected  to  by  some  critics,  but  is  perfectly  correct. 
^  Any  place.     A  vulgarism  for  anyiuhere.     The  same  mistake 

occurs  with  regard  to  every  place  and  same  place. 
Anywheres.     A  vulgarism  for  anywhere.     The  same  mistake 

occurs  with  regard  to  everywhere  and  somewhere. 
As.     As  is  a  relative  pronoun  in  "  such  as  I  saw  I  liked  " ; 

that  is,  "  I  liked  those  which  I  saw."     It  is  now  used  in 


246  Appendix 

this  sense  only  after  such,  *'  If  I  do  say  so  as  shouldn't  " 
is  incorrect. 

Assist  at.  "  Many  guests  assisted  at  the  ceremony."  An 
incorrect  expression,  taken  from  the  French,  for  "  were 
present  at." 

Automobile,  autotruckc  Words  just  coming  into  use,  and 
violently  objected  to.  No  substitutes  likely  to  be  ac- 
cepted have  yet  appeared,  howeven  Cf.  electrocute, 
tekg?'am,  and  cablegram. 

Avocation.  Vocation  means  a  man's  calling  or  profession ; 
avocation  is  what  he  takes  up  as  an  amusement  or  side 
issue.  "  His  vocation  was  law  j  his  avocation,  garden- 
ing." 

Badly.     See  page  47. 

Balance.  "  Balance  of  the  day  or  the  party,"  — a  harmless 
figure  of  speech,  derived  from  commercial  languageo 
Not  in  literary  usage.      Cf.  posted. 

Behave.  "Why  doesn't  he  <5^/^^z^^/"  A  colloquial,  or  per- 
haps vulgar,  expression  for  "  why  doesn't  he  behave 
well?:' 

Being  built.  A  long  warfare  has  been  waged  over  this  and 
similar  expressions,  but  they  are  perfectly  correct.  Such 
expressions  as  "the  house .  is  building,''^  common  in 
eighteenth  century  literature  and  not  yet  obsolete,  are 
equivalent  to  the  progressive  form  of  the  passive,  e.g. 
"the  house  is  being  built,''  and  were  the  regular  forms 
before  the  participle  being  and  the  resulting  form  of  the 
progressive  passive  came  into  use.  The  form  in  ijig,  in 
"  the  house  is  building,'"  is  historically,  however,  not  the 
participle,  but  the  participial  infinitive ;  for  the  expres- 
sion originally  was  "  the  house  is  in  building,''  which 
was  weakened  to  a-buildifig  and  then  to  building. 

Between.     See  Among. 

Both,     Used  only  with  reference  to  two  persons  or  objects 


Appendix  247 

Cablegram.  Formed  on  the  basis  of  telegram,  and  condemned 
by  purists,  who  hold  that  the  word  is  unnecessary.  T(>ey 
would  have  us  telegraph  to  London,  and  not  cable  or  send^ 
a  cablegram.  Both  cable  and  cablegram  are  hkely  to 
survive^  however,  because  they  are  more  specific ;  and, 
though  now  chiefly  colloquial,  they  will  probably  be 
admitted  into  full  Uterary  usage. 

Calculate.  Sometimes  used  loosely,  outside  of  its  strictly 
mathematical  meaning,  as  equivalent  to  think  or  guess,  or 
to  purpose,  intend,  or  design,  "  You  are  wrong  there,  I 
calculated     To  be  avoided. 

Can.     See  page  46. 

Claim.  Best  used  when  a  real  claim  is  involved,  as  in  "  I 
claiin  that  land,"  or  "  I  claim  that  you  have  broken  the 
rules,"  and  not  when  merely  equivalent  to  "assert,"  as  in 
"  I  claim  that  it  is  going  to  rain." 

Combine,  for  "  combination,"  as  in  "  a  great  combine, ^^ 
[Vulgar.] 

Commence.  Exactly  synonymous  in  all  ordinary  uses  with 
begin  ;  the  latter,  however,  is  a  simpler  wordc 

Complected.     "  A  light  ^^;;^//<fr/^^  man."     [Vulgar.] 

Complement.     Sometimes  confused  with  complimento 

Corporal.     Sometimes  confused  with  corporeal. 

Council.     Sometimes  confused  with  counsel. 

Deadly:     Sometimes  confused  with  deathly. 

Definite.  Sometimes  confused  with  definitive,  which  means 
"final."  Definite  action  on  a  question  is  not  necessarily 
definitive  action,  though  it  may  usually  be  so. 

Demean.  Strictly,  "  to  demean  oneself  means  "  to  carry 
oneself,"  "  to  behave  oneself."  Demeanor  is  practically 
the  same  as  "behavior."  But  by  association  with  the 
adjective  "  mean  "  the  word  has  acquired  in  popular  usage 
the  sense  of  "  debase."  This  meaning  is  avoided  by 
scrupulous  writers. 


248  Appendix 

Depot.  The  French  word  means  a  "  storehouse "  and  is 
inappropriate  in  its  popular  use.  Station  is  rapidly  taking 
its  place. 

Different  than  (to).     See  page  48. 

Directly.  "  I  will  come  directly  I  hear  from  you,"  for  "  as 
soon  as  I  hear  from  you,"  is  an  incorrect  expression 
common  in  Great  Britain. 

Discover.     Sometimes  confused  with  invent. 

Don*t.  A  common  colloquial  contraction  of  '^do  not." 
Sometimes  used  colloquially,  even  by  educated  people, 
for  "  does  not." 

Drive.  In  England  the  somewhat  artificial  distinction  is 
made  between  driving  (in  a  carriage)  and  riding  (on 
horseback).  In  the  United  States  we  sometimes  make 
the  same  distinction,  though  we  are  more  incHned  to  use 
drive  of  a  carriage  when  we  actually  hold  the  reins,  and 
ride  of  a  carriage  when  we  are  carried  passively,  e.g,  "  I 
rode  over  the  mountains  in  a  stage  coach  "  ;  but  we  use 
ride  rather  than  drive  of  saddle-horses. 

Each  other.  It  used  to  be  said  that  each  other  was  used 
of  two  people  and  one  another  of  more  than  two.  The 
distinction  does  not  hold  good,  but  it  is  true  that  each 
other  is  more  naturally  used  of  small  bodies.  "  Love  one 
another^'  refers  to  people  in  general.  "They  loved  each 
other  "  would  naturally  refer  to  a  pair  or  small  group. 

Eat  (pronounced  et).  An  old  preterite  of  eat,  now  sup- 
planted by  ate,  but  still  sometimes  heard.  Cf.  a  similar 
preterite  of  heat,  which  must  be  classed  as  vulgar  English. 

Editorial.  The  American  equivalent  of  the  British  leader, 
Cf.  elevator  and  lift. 

Elective.     Colloquial,  in  some  colleges,  for  "  elective  course." 

Electric.     Colloquial  or  vulgar  for  "  electric  caro" 

Electrocute.     See  page  29. 

Elegant.     See  page  238. 


Appendix  249 

Emigrant.     Sometimes  confused  with  immigrant 

Endorse.  Used  first  in  its  business  sense,  of  notes ;  after- 
wards, metaphorically,  of  acts  or  character ;  e.g,  "  I  will 
endorse  anything  he  does."  In  this  use  it  is  not  approved 
by  most  rhetoricians. 

Enthuse.     See  page  29. 

Exceptional.     Sometimes  confused  with  exceptionable. 

Excessively.     Sometimes  improperly  used  for  exceedingly. 

Exposition.  A  French  word,  precisely  the  equivalent  of 
exhibition.  It  has  been  generally  adopted  instead  of 
exhibition  with  reference  to  the  World's  Fair  and  similar 
institutions. 

Factor,  feature.  Two  metaphors  which  are  becoming  very 
trite  ;  e.g. ''  his  honesty  was  a  great  factor  in  his  success  ;  " 
"  a  roof  garden  is  of  t\it  features  of  the  theatre." 

Fetch.  A  good  old  word,  meaning  '^to  bring"  or  "to  go 
and  bring,"  which  seems  in  danger  of  dying  out. 

Fire.     Slang  for  "  throw." 

Firstly.  Properly  we  '^^.y  first,  secondly,  thirdly,  last ;  but  it 
is  now  not  uncommon  to  h^diX  firstly  and  lastly. 

Fix.  "Toyf^"  for  "to  repair, ^^  and  "to  be  in  3,  fix^^  are 
common  colloquial  (not  Hterary)  phrases  in  the  United 
States.  They  are  not  often  used  in  England,  and  they 
frequently  figure  in  British  jokes  at  our  expense. 

Flee,  fly,  flow.  The  principal  parts  of  these  verbs  are  often 
confused.  Flee,  fled,  fled ;  fly,  flew,  flown  ;  flow,  flowed, 
flowed. 

Gentleman,  lady.  Any  persons  of  good  breeding,  when 
spoken  of  in  their  social  relations.  Neither  term  should 
be  applied  indiscriminately. 

Gent. 

"  The  thing  named  '  pants '  in  certain  documents, 
A  word  not  made  for  gentlemen,  but  '  gents.'  " 

—  O.  W.  Holmes. 


2  so  Appendix 

Give  upon.  An  incorrect  expression,  imitating  a  French 
idiom  for  "open  on";  e.g,  "the  windows  give  on  the 
garden." 

Got.  Better  omitted,  unless  it  means  "have  acquired"  or 
"  come  into  possession."  The  form  is  perfectly  correct, 
though  chiefly  colloquial,  and  the  prejudice  against  it,  on 
some  sides,  seems  unreasonable.  "  I  have  got  a  cold," 
for  instance,  slightly  differs  in  meaning  from  "  I  have 
a  cold."  Gotten  is  a  recent  revival  of  an  old  form 
of  the  same  word.  What  apphes  to  one,  applies  to  the 
other. 

Grind.     College  slang. 

Guess.  The  British  laugh  at  us  for  saying  "  I  guess  it's  time 
to  go."  The  idiom  is  an  ancient  and  a  harmless  one, 
now  wholly  colloquial,  though  it  is  not  often  used  in 
Great  Britain. 

Gums.  Otherwise,  rubbers^  overshoes,  etc.  These  words 
are  excellent  examples  of  the  variety  of  terms  naturally 
used  in  different  parts  of  the  country  for  approximately 
the  same  article.      Cf.  bucket,  pail,  and  hod ;  pitcher  and 

Hadn't  ought  to.     A  vulgarism  for  "  ought  not  to  have." 
Hain't  got.     A  vulgarism  for  "  haven't  got,"  or  "  haven't." 
Hire.     Often  confused  with  let      "  I  hire  something  from 
him  and  let  something  to  him."      Rent  and  lease  are  used 
indiscriminately  of  either  owner  or  tenant. 
'Home.     "  Stay  home  "  is  a  vulgarism  for  "  stay  at  home." 
House,  home,  residence.    House  has  merely  a  physical  mean- 
ing ;  e,g,  "  I  made  my  home  in  his  house''      It  is  incorrect 
to  say  "  his  home  is  lighted  by  electricity."    Residence  is  a 
somewhat  pretentious  word.     "  I  live  on  this  street,"  or 
"  this  is   my  house,''  is  better   than   "  I    reside  on  this 
street,"  or  "  this  is  my  residence." 
How.      "  How  do  you  say  ?  "     Vulgarism  for  what. 


Appendix  251 

Individual.  Properly,  a  single  thing  regarded  as  a  unit; 
especially  a  human  being.  "  And  the  individual  withers, 
and  the  world  is  more  and  more."  —  Improperly,  a  person 
merely,  a  man ;  e.g,  "  I  saw  a  tall  individual,  leaning  on 
the  fence." 

In  our  midst.  This  perfectly  correct  expression  is  some- 
times objected  to,  on  the  ground  that  midst  is  not 
ordinarily  employed  as  a  noun. 

Into.  Used  with  verbs  of  motion.  "  I  am  going  into 
town,"  not  "  in  town." 

Invite.     Vulgarism  for  invitation.     Cf.  combine. 

Latest,  last,  latter.  It  is  proper  to  say  "  his  last  words  " 
(of  a  man  who  is  dead),  "  his  latest  order  "  (of  a  man 
who  may  still  give  other  orders) .  We  sometimes  use  lasty 
however,  where  latest  might  strictly  be  more  appropriate ; 
e.g.  "  his  last  book  "  (of  a  living  author) .  Latter  refers 
to  one  of  two  persons  or  objects ;  last  to  one  of  more 
than  two. 

Learn.  Once  proper  in  the  sense  of  teach  ;  now  a  vulgarism  ; 
e.g.     "  I  am  learning  him  arithmetic." 

Lease,  let.     See  Hire. 

Leave.  ^^  Leave  him  go,"  '^  leave  him  ^<?"/  vulgarisms  for 
'^  let  him  go,"  "  let  him  alone.'^ 

Less,  fewer.  Less  usually  refers  to  quantity  in  general; 
fewer  to  number;  e.g.  ''less  noise,"  ''less  corn,"  "fewer 
people,"  "fewer  potatoes." 

Liable,  likely.  Liable  implies  that  what  may  happen  is  un- 
fortunate or  unpleasant.  "  It  is  likely  to  rain  ;  "  "  the 
dam  is  liable  to  break." 

Lie.     See  page  46. 

Loan.  Sometimes  used  for  lend,  as  in  "  I  loaned  him  my 
knife  " ;  but  this  use  is  not  approved  by  the  rhetoricians. 

Lot.  "  A  lot  of  people,"  colloquial.  "  Lots  of  people," 
exceedingly  colloquial,  with  a  tinge  of  vulgarity. 


252  Appendix 

Majority.     Often  confused  with  plurality. 

Materialize.     Used  only  colloquially  and  jocosely. 

May.     See  page  45. 

Most.  Used  colloquially  for  abnost;  e.g.  "  most  all  the 
time."     Not  in  literary  use. 

Mutual.  Properly,  reciprocal;  e.g.  *^a  w?^///^/  affection." 
Loosely  used  for  common ;  e.g.  "  a  tnutual  friend."  This 
second  use  was  at  first  a  vulgarism,  but  it  has,  since  the 
publication  of  Dickens's  novel,  become  more  and  more 
reputable,  especially  in  this  phrase. 

Nice.  Colloquially  used  of  anything  pleasing ;  e.g,  "  a  nice 
day,"  "  a  nice  dinner."  Its  hterary  use  implies  discrimi- 
nation :  "  nice  in  his  habits,"  "  a  nice  calculation." 

One.  It  is  a  question  whether  we  should  say  "  one  has  such 
luck  as  one  deserves,"  or  ^^  one  has  such  luck  as  he 
deserves."  Punctilious  people  have  a  prejudice  for  the 
former  method  of  reference. 

Onto.  Onto  is  the  result  of  a  desire  for  a  preposition  formed 
from  on,  in  the  same  way  that  into  is  formed  from  in.  If 
it  were  accepted,  we  should  say, ''  I  lay  on  the  bed,  but  I 
jumped  onto  the  table."  It  is,  however,  usually  regarded 
as  a  vulgarism.  On  has  long  been  used  with  verbs  of 
motion. 
"^7^^  Oral.  Oral,  expressed  in  spoken  words.  Verbal,  properly, 
relating  to  or  concerned  with  ^wordg)  only ;  improperly 
confounded  with  oral.  The  words  are  correctly  used  as 
follows.  "  It  was  an  oral  message,  but  I  will  vouch  for 
its  verbal  accuracy." 

Party.  Vulgarly  used  for  person,  man,  etc. ;  e.g.  "  he  is  a 
nice  old  party."" 

'Phone.     Slang  for  telephone. 

Plenty.  Used  colloquially  for  enough,  etc.,  *^  He  had  plenty 
to  do." 

Posted.      Originally    a   commercial    expression.      Common 


Appendix  253 

colloquially  in  its  figurative  sense,  e.g.  "  a  vf^W- posted 
man  "  ;  but  not  in  wide  literary  use. 

Practical.     Sometimes  confused  W\i\\  practicable. 

Pronounced.  An  expression  in  imitation  of  a  French  idiom  ; 
e.g.  "his  vc{0?>t  pronounced  h.dihit,''^  (or  ^' his  most  prominent 
or  conspicuous  habit."  Not  yet  in  thoroughly  good  liter- 
ary use. 

Propose,  purpose.  The  strict  meanings  of  the  two  words 
are  obvious  :  "  I  purpose  proposing  this  plan."  Collo- 
quially, propose  is  often  used  with  the  force  of  purpose, 
however ;  e.g.  "  \  propose  to  go  to  town  this  afternoon." 

Proven.  We  usually  and  properly  say  proved ;  e.g.  "  the 
thing  is  not  proved.'^  There  is,  however,  an  old  Scotch 
legal  phrase,  "  not  proven^'  which  has  of  late  years  be- 
come common,  and  we  now  hear  frequently  that  "  this  or 
that  has  ^i^^vv  proven  false,  or  not  proven  at  all." 

Quite.  Properly  used  in  the  sense  of  "  entirely  "  ;  e.g.  "  quite 
dead."  It  has  also  been  long  used,  chiefly  colloquially, 
to  mean  "moderately,"  "to  a  certain  extent";  e.g.  "it 
is  quite  a  warm  day."  But  the  latter  use  has  not  been 
widely  accepted  in  literature. 

Raise.  Sometimes  improperly  used  for  rise;  e.g.  "there  is 
likely  to  be  a  raise  in  prices." 

Real.  Sometimes  improperly  used  with  the  force  of  "  very"  ; 
e.g.  "it's  realhoX.:' 

Recipe,  receipt.     These  words  are  often  confused. 

Recollect  of;  remember  of.     Vulgarisms. 

Resume.  Vulgarism  for  sum  up.  It  is  an  imitation  of  a 
French  word.     See  Assist  at.  Give  upon.  Pronounced. 

Right.  Improperly  used  with  the  force  of  "  very  "  ;  e.g. 
"  it's  right  hot."     See  Real. 

Sang,  sung.  It  is  more  usual  to  say  "  he  sang,''^  "  he  has 
sung.''  It  is  wrong  to  say  "  he  has  sang''  but  it  is  per- 
fectly, proper  to  say  "  he  sung."     Many  verbs  have  two 


254  Appendix ' 

preterites  or  two  past  participles,  of  which  one  is  a  little 
more  commonly  used  than  another;  e.g.  "he  dived 
(dove),"  "he  was  hanged  (hung)  for  murder."  The 
lists  of  principal  parts  in  most  grammars  are  incomplete 
and  misleading.  Consult  a  good  dictionary  whenever 
you  are  in  doubt. 

Sit,  set.     See  page  46. 

Some.  Not  to  be  used  as  an  adverb,  as  in  "  I  am  some 
better,"  nor  with  quite y  as  in  "  I  have  quite  some 
books." 

Stop.  It  is  proper  to  say  that  we  stopped  at  an  inn  for 
supper,  or  for  the  night,  or  for  a  week,  and  then  continued 
our  journey.  But  the  purists  are  right  in  preferring  stay 
unless  the  intention  is  merely  to  indicate  a  break  in  a 
journey  ;  e.g.  "  I  am  staying  (not  stopping^  for  the  present 
at  the  Hotel  St.  George." 

Team.     A  set  of  animals  or  men,  not  a  horse  and  wagon. 

Telegram.     See  page  29. 

These  kind  or  sort.  An  old-fashioned  expression,  now  al- 
most or  quite  a  vulgarism. 

Transpire.  To  escape  from  secrecy,  to  ooze  out ;  not  simply 
to  happen  or  to  occur. 

Very.  Very  is  not  properly  used  alone  with  passive  parti- 
ciples; i.e.  we  say  "I  was  very  glad  to  see  him,"  but  "I 
was  very  much  pleased  to  find  him  at  home." 

Ways.  A  colloquialism  or  vulgarism ;  e.g.  "  I  am  going  a 
ways  further." 

Whatever.  Improperly  used  as  an  interrogative  pronoun ; 
e.g.  ^'whatever  do  you  mean  by  coming  here?" 

Wire.  See  Telegram,  Cablegram,  Automobile,  'Phone,  etc. 
One  of  the  words  forced  upon  the  language  by  modern 
inventions.  It  should  be  noticed  that  this  word,  hke 
phone,  has  remained  in  commercial  and  colloquial  use, 
without  reaching  hterary  use. 


SIGNS    SUGGESTED    FOR    USE    IN    COR- 
RECTING  COMPOSITIONS 


xMS.  —  Bad  manuscript. 

Sp.  —  Bad  spelling. 

p.  —  Fault  in  punctuation. 

cap.  —  Fault  in  the  use  of  a  capital  letter. 

I,  2,  3,  etc.  —  Words,  clauses,  or  sentences  to  be  rearranged  in  con- 
formity with  the  numbering. 

[     ]  —  Passages  within  brackets  to  be  omitted. 
I  —  Against  a  clause,  sentence,  or  paragraph  incurable  by  correction, 
and  requiring  to  be  recast. 

X  —  Some  fault  too  obvious  to  require  particularizing. 

B. — Barbarism. 

I. — Impropriety. 

W.  — Wordy.  \  Words. 

H.  —  Highflown  or  inflated. 

V.  — Vague. 

S.  —  Solecism. 

L.  —  Structure  too  loose. 

U.  —  Lacks  unity.  \  Sentences. 

E.  —  Emphasis  lacking  or  wrongly  placed, 
C.  —  Structure  incoherent. 
^ — Proper  place  for  a  paragraph. 
No  ^  —  Improper  place  for  a  paragraph. 
1  U.  —  Lacks  unity.  }■  Paragraphs. 
^  E.  —  Emphasis  lacking  or  wrongly  placed. 
^  C.  —  Structure  incoherent. 
T.  U.  —  Lacks  unity. 

T.  E.  —  Emphasis  lacking  or  wrongly  placed.   \  Whole  Theme. 
T.  C.  —  Structure  incoherent. 
O.,  A.,  V. — Obscure,  ambiguous,  vague. 

F.  —  Feeble. 

M.  —  Misuse  of  metaphorical  language. 
K.  —  Awkward,  ugly,  or  unpleasing. 

255 


INDEX 


[The  numbers  refer  to  pages] 


I.     SUBJECTS   TREATED 


Abbreviations,  76. 

Accuracy,  importance  of,  19,  239. 

Adjective  for  adverb,  47. 

Adverb  for  adjective,  47. 

Ambiguity,  145,  225. 

Americanisms,  24. 

Analysis  of  simple  sentences,  63; 
complex  and  compound  sen- 
tences, 66. 

Anglo-Saxon,  167. 

Antithesis,  231. 

Apostrophe  (mark  of  punctuation), 
86;    (form  of  expression),  235. 

Art,  an  art   defined,  2;    fine  arts, 

3. 
Article,  34. 
Authority  as  to  usage,  24. 

Barbarisms,  28. 
Brackets,  85. 
Briticisms,  24. 

Capitals,  88;   in  titles,  12. 

Cases.  See  Nominative ^  Objectivey 
Possessive. 

Clause,  60. 

Clearness,  220-28;  how  secured, 
221 ;  not  precision,  221 ;  de- 
vices for  securing,  223;  figures 
for  sake  of,  224;   lack  of,  225. 


Climax,  230. 

Coherence,  of  sentence,  143-9;  of 
paragraph,  201-6;  of  whole 
composition,  214. 

Colon,  79. 

Comma,  80. 

Compositions,  subjects  for,  8-10, 
209;  form  of,  11-12;  first  essen- 
tials of  a  good  composition,  14; 
scale  of  composition,  161.  See 
also  Whole  Composition. 

Conjunctions,  use  of,  202. 

Construction  of  sentences,  intri- 
cate, 136;   change  of,  137. 

Correlatives,  position  of,  48. 


Dash,  86. 
Dialect,  23. 
Dictionaries,  25, 


^55- 


Elegance,  220,  238-41;  prepara- 
tion of  Ms.,  238;  attention  to 
details,  239;   good  taste,  239. 

Emphasis,  in  the  sentence,  141 -2; 
in  the  paragraph,  192-201 ;  in 
the  whole  composition,  211-14. 

Exclamation  point,  85. 


Figures  of  speech,  224,  232-7. 
"Fine  writing,"  172. 


256 


Index 


257 


Force,  220,  229-37;  devices  for 
securing,  230-7;  emphasis,  cli- 
max, antithesis,  230;  figures  for 
the  sake  of,  232. 

Grammar,  how  different  from 
rhetoric,  6;  incorrect,  33-48; 
grammatical  structure  of  the 
sentence,  59-72. 

Hyphen,  87. 

Improprieties,  30. 
Intinitive,  split,  47. 
Italics,  87. 

Latin,  words  derived  from,  168. 

Metaphors,  224,  232. 
Metonomy,  235. 

Negative,  double,  47. 
Nominative  case  of  pronouns,  37; 

nominative  absolute,  147. 
Nouns,  plural   of,    34;    possessive 

of»  35- 
Number  of  pronouns,  41 ;   of  verbs, 

43. 

Objective  case  of  pronouns,  37. 
Obscurity,  225. 

Omission  of  verb  or  principal 
clause,  70. 

Paragraphs,  indentation  of,  12; 
general  instructions  concerning, 
19;  importance  of,  181  ;  the 
paragraph  by  itself,  182;  unity 
of,  183;  test  of  unity  of,  185; 
emphasis  in,  192;  topic  sentence 
in,  192;  summary  sentence  in, 
195  ;  development  of,  197; 
coherence  in,  201 ;  lack  of  co- 
herence in,  207. 
s 


Parentheses,  85. 

Participial  construction,  false,  48, 
71,146.         -'-   ■ 

Period,  75. 

Personification,  235. 

Phrase,  60. 

Plan,  of  the  paragraph,  202;  of 
the  whole  composition,  216. 

Plural  of  nouns,  34. 

Possessive,  of  nouns,  35;  use  of, 
36;   of  pronouns,  39. 

Precision,  221. 

Pronouns,  nominative  and  objective 
cases  of,  37;  possessive  case  of, 
39;  number  of,  41;  false  refer- 
ence, 145. 

Punctuation,  75. 

Qualities  of  style,  220.     See  Clear- 
ness, Fo7'ce,  Elegaitce, 
Question  mark,  84. 
Quotation  marks,  86. 

Rhetoric,  defined,  I ;  definition  ex- 
plained, 1-3. 

Science,  a,  defined,  2. 

Semicolon,  77. 

Sentence,  60;  simple,  complex,  and 
compound,  62;  analysis  of  sim- 
ple, 63;  analysis  of  complex 
and  compound,  66;  fundamental 
errors  in  the  construction  of,  69; 
"comma  sentences,"  71 ;  gram- 
matical structure  evident  in,  91- 
3;  length  of,  97-104;  periodic 
and  loose,  106-20;  parallel 
structure  in,  120-3;  value  of 
imitation  in  construction,  123; 
unity  of,  13 1-8;  emphasis  in, 
141-2 ;  coherence  in,  143-9; 
topic  sentence,  192;  summary 
sentence,  195. 


258 


Index 


Sequence  of  tenses,  45. 

Simile,  224,  232. 

Spelling,  hints  as  to,  15-17. 

Structure  of  the  sentence,  gram- 
matical, 59-72;  rhetorical,  90- 
149. 

Subjects  for  compositions,  8-10, 
209. 

Summary  sentence,  195. 

Synecdoche,  235. 

Tenses,  sequence  of,  45. 
Titles,  capitals  in,  12;   for  compo- 
sitions, 210. 
Topic  sentence,  192. 

Unity,  of  sentence,  131 ;  of  para- 
graph, 183;  of  the  whole  com- 
position, 209. 

Usage,  importance  of,  in  language, 
21;   literary,  colloquial,  and  vul- 


gar, 22;   correct,  23;   local,  24; 
authority  as  to,  24. 

Vagueness,  225. 

Verbs,  number  of,  43;  sequence 
of  tenses,  45 ;   omission  of,  70. 

Vocabulary,  extent  of  the  English, 
152;  extent  of  the  individual, 
153;  how  to  increase  the  indi- 
vidual, 154. 

Whole  composition,  209-19;  unity 
of,  209;  emphasis  in,  21 1;  co- 
herence in,  214;  plan  of,  216; 
details  of,  217;   formula  for,  218. 

Words,  new,  27;  misused,  30;  dis- 
puted, 32;  too  many,  158;  too 
few,  160;  long  and  short,  166; 
Anglo-Saxon  and  Latin,  167; 
simple  and  affected,  172;  spe- 
cific or  definite,   177. 

Writing,  "fine,"  172. 


Index 


259 


II.   WORDS    SPECIALLY   COMMENTED    ON 


Accept,  31,  245. 
Admire,  245. 
Affect,  31,  245. 
Aggravate,  32. 
Ain't,  33. 
Allow,  245. 
Allude,  245. 
Among,  245. 
Animalculae,  245. 
Anybody  else's,  245. 
Anywheres,  245. 
As,  245. 
Assist  at,  246. 
Automobile,  246. 
Autotruck,  246. 
Avocation,  246. 

Badly  (bad),  47. 
Baggage,  24. 
Balance,  246. 
Banjoist,  29. 
Behave,  246. 
Being  built,  246.     / 
Between,  246. 
Both,  246. 
Boycott,  28. 
Bucket,  250. 
Bulldoze,  28. 
Burglarize,  29. 
But,  38. 

Cablegram,  28,  29,  247. 
Calculate,  247. 
Can,  46. 


Cinch,  28. 
Claim,  247. 
Clumb,  33. 
Combine,  247. 
Commence,  247. 
Complected,  247. 
Complement,  247. 
Compliment,  247. 
Corporal,  247. 
Corporeal,  247. 
Council,  247. 
Counsel,  247. 

Deadly,  247. 
Deathly,  247. 
Definite,  247. 
Definitive,  247. 
Demean,  247. 
Depot,  248. 
Different,  48. 
Discover,  248. 
Donate,  32. 
Don't,  22,  48,  248. 
Drive,  248. 
Dude,  28. 

Each  other,  248. 
Eat,  248. 

Editorial,  24,  248. 
Efifect,  245. 
Either,  48. 
Elective,  248. 
Electric,  248. 
Electrocute,  28,  29. 


26o 


Index 


Elegant,  238. 
Elevator,  24. 
Emigrant,  249. 
Endorse,  249. 
Enthuse,  29. 
Everybody  (they),  41. 
Exceedingly,  249. 
Except,  245. 
Exceptional,  249. 
Exceptionable,  249. 
Excessively,  249. 
Exposition,  249. 

Factor,  249. 
Fancy,  24. 
Feature,  249. 
Fetch,  249. 
Fewer,  251. 
Fire,  249. 
Firstly,  249. 
Fix,  249. 
Flee,  flow,  fly,  249. 

Gent,  249. 
Gentleman,  249. 
Give  upon,  250. 
Got,  gotten,  250. 
Grind,  28,  250. 
Guess,  24,  250. 
Gums,  250. 

Hadn't  ought,  250. 

Hain't,  hain't  got,  22,  250. 

Her's,  39. 

Hire,  250. 

His'n,  33. 

Hod,  250. 

Home,  250. 

House,  250. 

How,  250. 

Immigrant,  249. 
Individual,  251. 
In  our  midst,  251. 


Into,  251. 
Invent,  248. 
Invite,  251. 
It's,  39. 

Lady,  249. 

Latest,  last,  latter,  25 1 

Lay,  46. 

Leader,  24. 

Learn,  251. 

Lease,  let,  251. 

Leave,  251. 

Less,  251. 

Liable,  251. 

Lie,  46. 

Lift,  24. 

Like,  48. 

Likely,  251. 

Loan,  251. 

Lot,  lots,  251. 

Luggage.  24. 

Majority,  252. 
Materialize,  252. 
May,  46. 
Me,  37. 
Most,  252. 
Mutual,  252. 

Neither,  48. 

Nice,  252. 

One,  252. 
One  another,  248. 
Only,  48. 
Onto,  252. 
Oral,  252. 
Overshoes,  252. 

Pail,  250. 
Party,  31,  252. 
'Phone,  252. 
Pitcher,  252. 
Plenty,  252. 


Index 


261 


I 


Plurality,  252. 
Posted,  252. 
Practicable,  253. 
Practical,  253. 
Pronounced,  253. 
Propose,  253. 
Proven,  253. 
Purpose,  253. 

Quite,  253. 

Raise,  46,  253. 
Real,  253. 

Receipt,  recipe,  253. 
Reckon,  24. 
Recollect  of,  253. 
Remember  of,  253. 
Residence,  253. 
Resume,  253. 
Ride,  253. 
Right,  253. 
Rise,  46,  253. 
Rubbers,  250. 

Sang,  sung,  253. 
Set,  46. 
Shall,  52-57. 
Should,  58. 
Sit,  46. 
So,  147. 


Some,  254. 
Stay,  254. 
Stop,  254. 
Swipe,  28. 

Team,  254. 

Telegram,  28,  29,  254. 

Than,  37. 

The,  34. 

These  kind,  254. 

Transpire,  254. 

Typewriter,  28. 

Verbal,  252. 
Very,  254. 

Was  (you),  i^. 
Ways,  254. 
Whatever,  254. 
Which  (and),  40. 
Which  (fact),  40. 
While,  147. 
Who  (whom),  37. 
Whose  (of  which),  39. 
Will,  52-7. 
Wire,  254. 
Without,  47. 
Worser,  22. 
Would,  58. 


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